The Ancient Near East

The five books of Moses come out of a time and culture far different from ours. Over 3500 years ago, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, ... and Moses, lived in a culture now called the Ancient Near East (ANE.) The culture of the ANE flows throughout the background of the Old Testament. An understanding of that culture is important for interpreting the Old Testament.

The Ancient Near East

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers (mentioned in Genesis 2!) flow out of mountains in eastern Turkey, through modern Syria and Iraq, and into the Persian Gulf. The region between the rivers (Mesopotamia) had fertile soil that promoted early agriculture, possibly as far back at 12,000 years ago. The Neolithic Revolution apparently began there, as humans moved from a predominantly hunter-gatherer society to one based on agriculture. This region was home to some of the most ancient civilizations.

As one moves west of Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent forms an arc that moves through ancient Canaan  (with the Jordan River) to Egypt. This region was home to ancient peoples who spoke a semitic language of which Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic are examples. An ancient language of which we have cuneiform writings was Arkkadian, spoken in ancient Babylon.

As humanity moved from a hunter-gatherer society to one based on agriculture, we see a transition from wandering bedouins with their flocks to people settling down on the land. We can see some of that throughout the story of Genesis. Abraham is a wanderer. His descendants settle Canaan.

A Patriarchal Society

The ANE was intensely patriarchal. This was driven by basic survival needs. In order to survive and produce future generations, a man accumulated flocks and crops. And women and children. Women looked to a powerful man as a protecter and a provider, and so often rich men had numerous wives and concubines, and therefore many children, who themselves would grow up to have many children and provide the important work with the flocks and in the fields. The Old Testament writings swim in the ocean of this culture. It is a grave error to read the Old Testament passages as endorsing the ANE culture. The Old Testament, written in an ancient language within an ancient culture, should not be seen as endorsing either the language or the culture. (We will say more about this as we get into the wilderness wanderings and the Mosaic Covenant.)

The Bronze Age

Sometime around 3500 BC, humans realized that in their kilns they could get copper and tin hot enough to melt and so they could create hard, durable alloys we now call bronze. The Bronze Age allowed better building materials and stronger weapons. The people of Sumer were one of the first societies to develop bronze. Abraham came out of the Sumerian city of Ur during the Bronze Age.

Egypt

One of the most ancient empires was just west of the western end of the fertile crescent, where the Nile River flowed into the Mediterranean. There the civilizations of the Nile valley coalesced into the Egyptian Empire around 3100 BC, at the merging of two civilizations called "Upper Egypt" and "Lower Egypt." (The terms "upper" and "lower", like everything Egyptian, describe the regions in relation to the Nile river. Lower Egypt was further down the Nile, at its delta, as it entered the sea.) The Egyptian empire lasted, with occasional interruptions, throughout the Bronze Age. This society relied on accurate predictions of Nile flooding and developed significant mathematics and astronomy.

The "interruptions" in the Egyptian dynasties, caused by invasions of other peoples, allow us to break up the Egyptian empire into three eras, the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms. The famous pyramids were built in the time of the Old Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom ended around 1650 with the conquest by the Hyksos. Joseph and his family likely arrived in Egypt around this time. The Exodus dates to a time later in the New Kingdom, which began around 1550 BC.

Can we find evidence of the Israelites in Egypt?  Apparently the closest known association occurs in the Merneptah Stele which may deal with the Israelites at a time when they are already in Canaan.

We now know, through extensive archaeology, a great deal about the Egyptian empire. For most of my understanding of these ancient civilizations, I lean on Wikipedia, relying on its robust internal conversations to ensure a certain level of accuracy. Other resources are this history.com site and an Encyclopedia Britannica site.  Timelines for the Egyptian civilizations are given here and here. A list of the Pharaohs, and the dates of their reigns, is given here.  

The Iron Age

Around 1200 BC, humans had improved their kilns. Using forced air, they developed kilns powerful enough to forge iron. Over the next few centuries, the Bronze Age collapsed and the Iron Age began. We can see the slow change from Bronze Age to Iron Age at various events in the Old Testament. King Sisera (see Judges 4) is feared because he had 900 chariots "fitted with iron."  The ability to build hot forges was a sign of power. In the reign of Saul, the Philistines could forge iron but the Israelites could not. (See 1 Samuel 13:19-22.) Later King Nebuchadnezzar had a fiery furnace in Daniel 3 and used it as a weapon!

Aware of the Iron Age and the difficulties of forging iron, one should be alert for the mention of iron in the Old Testament.

Some sources on the collapse of the Bronze Age are from Wikipedia here and the Biblical Archaeology Society, here.  See also this article on the fall of the Hittite Empire.

Recommended

A number of Christian scholars have recommended this book: Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament, by John Walton. I do not, at this time, have a copy of this book, but I have enjoyed Walton's commentary on Genesis.

First published March 5, 2023; updated March 1, 2026

Exodus 1, Oppression in Egypt

The book of Genesis ends with the descendants of Israel residing in Egypt.  This is to be a temporary stay; the descendants are to one day return to Canaan.  We continue that story here.

Exodus 1:1-5, Sons of Israel
These are the names of the sons of Israel who went to Egypt with Jacob, each with his family:  Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah;  Issachar, Zebulun and Benjamin;  Dan and Naphtali; Gad and Asher.  The descendants of Jacob numbered seventy in all; Joseph was already in Egypt. 

We have a brief review of the end of Genesis.

Exodus 1:6-11, The Israelites multiply

Now Joseph and all his brothers and all that generation died,  but the Israelites were fruitful and multiplied greatly and became exceedingly numerous, so that the land was filled with them.

Echoing Genesis 1:26-28, we have a "fruitful" family becoming a large tribe, until the land teems with them.

Exodus 1:8-11, A new king is worried
Then a new king, who did not know about Joseph, came to power in Egypt.  "Look," he said to his people, "the Israelites have become much too numerous for us.  Come, we must deal shrewdly with them or they will become even more numerous and, if war breaks out, will join our enemies, fight against us and leave the country."  

    

So they put slave masters over them to oppress them with forced labor, and they built Pithom and Rameses as store cities for Pharaoh.

A new king is afraid. Fear breeds disaster, eventually. This king will act rashly and eventually his descendant, another Pharaoh, will be foolish and self-destructive.

Dr. Carmen Imes see here echoes of Genesis 11:1-9, of the arrogance of the builders of the Tower of Babel.  And "Joseph" is the same word as "added to".  

This passage assumes the reader has read Genesis.

There are some similar Hebrew words, miskenoth (מִסְכְּנָה) vs mishkan (מִשְׁכָּן). The first means "store cities" for the Pharaoh cult while the second word is used for the later "tabernacle" for YHWH. 

Exodus 1:12-14, Despite oppression, the Israelites continue to multiply!
But the more they were oppressed, the more they multiplied and spread; so the Egyptians came to dread the Israelites and worked them ruthlessly. They made their lives bitter with hard labor in brick and mortar and with all kinds or work in the fields; in all their hard labor the Egyptians used them ruthlessly.

The king's oppression is not successful; the Israelites continue to grow and multiply.

Exodus 1:15-17, "Kill the boys!"

The king of Egypt said to the Hebrew midwives, whose names were Shiphrah and Puah, "When you help the Hebrew women in childbirth and observe them on the delivery stool, if it is a boy, kill him; but if it is a girl, let her live."

    

The midwives, however, feared God and did not do what the king of Egypt had told them to do; they let the boys live. 

Imes notes a collection of feminine endings in Hebrew, emphasizing the action of women.  She also points out that although this king is never named, the midwives are. Naming denotes significance. (Here's a Bible trivia question for you:  "Name the two Hebrew midwives of Moses' day"!)

Exodus 1:18-21,  New orders from Pharaoh
Then the king of Egypt summoned the midwives and asked them, "Why have you done this? Why have you let the boys live? 
    

The midwives answered Pharaoh, "Hebrew women are not like Egyptian women; they are vigorous and give birth before the midwives arrive."  So God was kind to the midwives and the people increased and became even more numerous. And because the mid-wives feared God, he gave them families of their own. 

    

The midwives claim that the pregnant Hebrew women deliver too quickly for the midwives to intervene!

Are there only two midwives for such a large populous? Note the delivery stool; they probably gave birth squatting on a stool. with gravity helping to deliver the baby.

The two midwives will be part of a group of five women that quietly, actively, resist the king.

Exodus 1:22,  New orders from Pharaoh

Then Pharaoh gave this order to all his people: "Every boy that is born you must throw into the Nile, but let every girl live."

Note the degree of savagery in verses 15 and 22. The frightened king is willing to murder children.

Why kill the boys?  This is presumably to prevent the Israelites from having an army? And the girls will be assimilated into the Egyptian culture?

What was the root of Pharaoh's fear? The Hebrews were large enough to be a security threat.  If their monotheism was prevalent, this would have been contrary to the Egyptian religion. And maybe there was always a concern that they might return to Canaan and so remove a large slave labor force.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is eben, 

אֶבֶן

a feminine noun meaning "stone." This word shows up 273 times in the Old Testament. It has a rare dual, oben (אֹבֶן), meaning "a pair of stones." That word only shows up twice in the Old Testament. In Jeremiah 18:3, it represents a potter's wheel. But here, in verse 16, the women giving birth sit on this pair of stones and so the NIV translates the word as "delivery stool."

Some Random Thoughts

Given current American culture, I cannot miss the similarities between this chapter and the fearmongering of the "Great Replacement Theory.," in which panicky Youtube podcasters warn white Americans that their race is being overwhelmed by refugees and immigrants. In this chapter, Pharaoh cries out "those Hebrews will become too numerous for us!"

In ancient Egypt it was women and mothers who quietly disobeyed the Pharaoh and saved lives. In the modern city of Minneapolis, in early 2026, the cruelty and violence of masked ICE officers was met by Signal Moms, mothers who quietly and patiently worked behind the scenes to protect families sheltering in place. I have had the privilege of meeting several of those women, modern versions of Shiphrah and Puah. In many cases, the moms were organized by Christian churches, using the Signal app for secure communication. May God bless them as He did Shiphrah and Puah!

First published March 1, 2023; updated Feb 28, 2026

Genesis 50, Funeral for Israel

Jacob has just died. After spending his final 17 years in Egypt, he blessed his sons and asked that his body be returned to Canaan. He then died quietly of old age.

Genesis 50:1-3, Egyptians mourn for Jacob

Joseph threw himself upon his father and wept over him and kissed him. Then Joseph directed the physicians in his service to embalm his father Israel. So the physicians embalmed him, taking a full forty days, for that was the time required for embalming. And the Egyptians mourned for him seventy days.

Joseph and the Egyptians follow Egyptian culture in the funeral services for Jacob. (Joseph has been immersed in the Egyptian culture for most of his life.)

Genesis 50:4-9, Funeral caravan to Canaan
When the days of mourning had passed, Joseph said to Pharaoh's court, "If I have found favor in your eyes, speak to Pharaoh for me. Tell him, `My father made me swear an oath and said, "I am about to die; bury me in the tomb I dug for myself in the land of Canaan." Now let me go up and bury my father; then I will return.'"

    

Pharaoh said, "Go up and bury your father, as he made you swear to do."

    

So Joseph went up to bury his father. All Pharaoh's officials accompanied him--the dignitaries of his court and all the dignitaries of Egypt-- besides all the members of Joseph's household and his brothers and those belonging to his father's household. Only their children and their flocks and herds were left in Goshen. Chariots and horsemen also went up with him. It was a very large company.

We see here considerable prestige and honor given to Joseph's father. Many notable Egyptians will accompany Joseph and his brothers to Canaan to intern the body of Jacob. In the next book the Egyptian will represent the epitome of evil. But here, the Egyptians are good and supportive.

Genesis 50:10-13, Burial near Mamre
When they reached the threshing floor of Atad, near the Jordan, they lamented loudly and bitterly; and there Joseph observed a seven-day period of mourning for his father.

    

When the Canaanites who lived there saw the mourning at the threshing floor of Atad, they said, "The Egyptians are holding a solemn ceremony of mourning." That is why that place near the Jordan is called Abel Mizraim. 

    

So Jacob's sons did as he had commanded them: They carried him to the land of Canaan and buried him in the cave in the field of Machpelah, near Mamre, which Abraham had bought as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite, along with the field.

In verse 11, the Hebrew word ay'-bel (ebel ,אֵבֶל) means "mourning" but abel (אָבֵל) means meadow; note the slight change in vowel pointing. "Mizraim" means "Egyptians" so Abel Mizraim either means "mourning of the Egyptians" or "meadow of the Egyptians." (The ancient texts only gave consonants, without vowel pointing, so we look to later texts, such as the Masoretic, to attempt to translate some words.)

Genesis 50:14-18, The brothers worry
After burying his father, Joseph returned to Egypt, together with his brothers and all the others who had gone with him to bury his father.

    

When Joseph's brothers saw that their father was dead, they said, "What if Joseph holds a grudge against us and pays us back for all the wrongs we did to him?" So they sent word to Joseph, saying, "Your father left these instructions before he died: `This is what you are to say to Joseph: I ask you to forgive your brothers the sins and the wrongs they committed in treating you so badly.' Now please forgive the sins of the servants of the God of your father." 

    

When their message came to him, Joseph wept.

    

His brothers then came and threw themselves down before him. "We are your slaves," they said.

The brothers connive to protect themselves. (In doing so, they clearly admit that their actions were "sins and wrongs.") Do the brothers have a good reason for their concern?  After all, Joseph did seem to enjoy testing (torturing?) them when they first arrived in Egypt.

Genesis 50:19-21, Joseph forgives
But Joseph said to them, "Don't be afraid. Am I in the place of God? You intended to harm me, but God intended it for good to accomplish what is now being done, the saving of many lives. So then, don't be afraid. I will provide for you and your children." And he reassured them and spoke kindly to them.

Joseph emphasizes that they are forgiven -- that this is all for good.

Walton argues that verse 20 is the theme of Genesis -- that throughout the book, God had a good plan (a Covenant Plan) that took decades, indeed centuries in development.

Genesis 50:22-26, Death of Joseph
Joseph stayed in Egypt, along with all his father's family. He lived a hundred and ten years and saw the third generation of Ephraim's children. Also the children of Makir son of Manasseh were placed at birth on Joseph's knees.

     

Then Joseph said to his brothers, "I am about to die. But God will surely come to your aid and take you up out of this land to the land he promised on oath to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob." And Joseph made the sons of Israel swear an oath and said, "God will surely come to your aid, and then you must carry my bones up from this place." 

    

So Joseph died at the age of a hundred and ten. And after they embalmed him, he was placed in a coffin in Egypt.

Placing a child on one's knees was probably a ritualistic way to symbolize adoption.

Joseph, like his fathers before him, looked to the covenant promise of the land of Canaan.  He wishes that his body eventually be taken back to that land.

So ends the book of Genesis.  The book of Exodus will follow the descendants of Jacob, centuries later, as the tribe grows into a million or more.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is muth,

מוּת

a verb meaniing "to die." Used with various verbs stems, the word can also mean "to cause someone to die" or "to be caused to die."

Some Random Thoughts

Walton argues that verse 20, 

"... but God intended it for good 

to accomplish what is now being done, 

the saving of many lives,"

is the theme of Genesis. Joseph endured decades of suffering in order to bring the family of Jacob to safety in Egypt. God had a plan, but it a long one, taking decades to come to fulfillment.

In modern Christian culture, there are claims that 

"God loves you and offers a wonderful pan for your life," 

(see "Law 1" here) but that promise often comes with a suggestion that this good plan happens quickly, maybe even immediately! A favorite Bible verse in this regard is Jeremiah 29:11, 

"I know the plans I have for you,” declares the Lord, 

“plans to prosper you ..., 

plans to give you hope and a future."

In their reciting of Jeremiah 29:11, people often ignore the context of Jeremiah, that God's plans for Judah are to bring the people back from Babylon seventy years later! Similarly, we often resist the pain of reading the book of Job because Job's suffering lasts for considerable time, despite his innocence. 

In the book of Genesis, throughout the book, God announces a good plan (a Covenant Plan) that will take decades, indeed centuries in develop and come to fruition.

First published Feb 28, 2023; updated Feb 27, 2026

Genesis 49, Twelve Blessings

Jacob is dying.  So he gathers his children for some final words. 

This chapter has the form of an ancient poem (says Alter) and some of the Hebrew words were probably antiquated even in the time of Moses. Both commentators, Alter and Walton, explain that some Hebrew words are unclear or unknown to modern translators.

Genesis 49:1-2, Jacob calls his sons
Then Jacob called for his sons and said: "Gather around so I can tell you what will happen to you in days to come. Assemble and listen, sons of Jacob; listen to your father Israel.

Jacob has some final words for each of his twelve sons. These will be blessings; these are the wishes and expectations of Jacob, some of which were apparently unfulfilled. Although Jacob claims to explain "what will happen ... in the days to come", we have no obligation to believe Jacob was correct.

Genesis 49:3-4, Jacob speaks to Reuben

"Reuben, you are my firstborn, my might, the first sign of my strength, excelling in honor, excelling in power. Turbulent as the waters, you will no longer excel, for you went up onto your father's bed, onto my couch and defiled it.

Reuben, Jacob's first child, slept with one of his father's concubines, with a member of Jacob's harem.  This is not forgotten. This violation is viewed as evidence of Reuben's chaotic, undisciplined power.

Genesis 49:5-7, Jacob speaks to Simeon and Levi
"Simeon and Levi are brothers-- their swords are weapons of violence. Let me not enter their council, let me not join their assembly, for they have killed men in their anger and hamstrung oxen as they pleased. Cursed be their anger, so fierce, and their fury, so cruel! I will scatter them in Jacob and disperse them in Israel.

Simeon and Levi, who massacred the inhabitants of Shechem (see Genesis 34:24-29) are men of violence. Jacob will not join in with them in their violence and cruelty.

In verse five, the meaning of the Hebrew translated "swords" is uncertain, as are the words translated here "hamstrung oxen". Both Walton and Alter see allusions to the massacre in Shechem. Walton suggests that the Hebrew mekerah, translated "swords" could also mean "to cut" and thus refers to the circumcision of the male of Shechem. Alter suggests that the phrase hamstrung oxen" alludes, metaphorically, to Simeon and Levi massacring the men of Shechem, after forcing them to be circumcised.

The words aimed at the three oldest sons are accusatory; they are curses, not blessings.

The descendants of Levi will indeed be "scattered" and "dispersed" as they will later serve as the priests, spread throughout the future nation of Israel (eg. Deuteronomy 10:9.)

Genesis 49:8-12, Jacob speaks to Judah
"Judah, your brothers will praise you; your hand will be on the neck of your enemies; your father's sons will bow down to you. You are a lion's cub, O Judah; you return from the prey, my son. Like a lion he crouches and lies down, like a lioness--who dares to rouse him?

    

The scepter will not depart from Judah, nor the ruler's staff from between his feet, until he comes to whom it belongs and the obedience of the nations is his. He will tether his donkey to a vine, his colt to the choicest branch; he will wash his garments in wine, his robes in the blood of grapes. His eyes will be darker than wine, his teeth whiter than milk.

After the criticisms of the oldest three sons, Jacob has praise for Judah. Judah will be a strong leader, a lion. Is a birthright passed on to Judah, after the criticisms of his older three brothers? 

As described in Genesis 29:35, when Leah gives birth to Judah, she identifies his name with the Hebrew word "praise." Jacob reinforces that identification.

In verse 10 the phrase translated "he comes to whom it belongs" is another questionable collection of words.  The NIV suggests it might be phrased as "until Shiloh comes" or "until he comes to whom tribute belongs."  Alter and Walton have similar suggestions on the translation. Alter says that the Masoretic text "seems to read 'until he comes to Shiloh,' a dark phrase that has inspired much messianic interpretations."  As Shiloh was occasionally viewed as a Messianic title, Christians might wonder if this is an allusion to the Messiah rising from the line of Judah. 

Genesis 49:13, Jacob speaks to Zebulun
"Zebulun will live by the seashore and become a haven for ships; his border will extend toward Sidon.

The tribe of Zebulun will be along the sea? When Canaan is divided late in the book of Joshua, the region of Zebulun is not coastal and there is no evidence that the tribe of Zebulun will have access to the sea. In this case, Jacob's blessing is not a prediction of the future.

Genesis 49:14-15, Jacob speaks to Issachar
"Issachar is a rawboned donkey lying down between two saddlebags. When he sees how good is his resting place and how pleasant is his land, he will bend his shoulder to the burden and submit to forced labor.

NIV footnotes: "rawboned" might mean "strong"; "saddlebags" might be "campfires". Some suggest that the first sentence describes a valley between two hills. (The only thing clear here is how little we know about these blessings of Jacob and this ancient Hebrew!)

Genesis 49:16-18, Jacob speaks to Daniel
"Dan will provide justice for his people as one of the tribes of Israel. Dan will be a serpent by the roadside, a viper along the path, that bites the horse's heels so that its rider tumbles backward.

    

"I look for your deliverance, O LORD.

(NIV footnote: Dan here means "he provides justice".) The tribe of Daniel is to emphasize justice. The image of a serpent need not be negative; a serpent is quick and aggressive.

Genesis 49:19-21, Jacob speaks to Gad, Asher, Naphtali
"Gad will be attacked by a band of raiders, but he will attack them at their heels.

     

"Asher's food will be rich; he will provide delicacies fit for a king.

     

"Naphtali is a doe set free that bears beautiful fawns.

From the NIV footnotes: In verse 19 Gad can mean "attack" and "band of raiders". In verse 21 the phrase "bears beautiful fawns" could be "utters beautiful words". Either translation describe some type of beauty.

There is considerable alliteration in the Hebrew that describes the blessing on Gad. The Hebrew of verse 19 has four words which begin with the g (gimel, ג) of Gad:  

"gāḏ gə-ḏūḏ yə-ḡū-ḏen-nū; ... yā-ḡuḏ" (גָּ֖ד גְּד֣וּד יְגוּדֶ֑נּוּ ... יָגֻ֥ד)

which translated -- with an attempt at English alliteration suggested by Strong's Concordance -- is 

"Gad, a troop shall trample... shall triumph."

Genesis 49:22-26, Jacob speaks to Joseph
"Joseph is a fruitful vine, a fruitful vine near a spring, whose branches climb over a wall. With bitterness archers attacked him; they shot at him with hostility. But his bow remained steady, his strong arms stayed limber, because of the hand of the Mighty One of Jacob, because of the Shepherd, the Rock of Israel, because of your father's God, who helps you, because of the Almighty, who blesses you with blessings of the heavens above, blessings of the deep that lies below, blessings of the breast and womb.

    

"Your father's blessings are greater than the blessings of the ancient mountains, than the bounty of the age-old hills. Let all these rest on the head of Joseph, on the brow of the prince among his brothers.

The blessing for Joseph continues to have strange archaic Hebrew words, say commentators. The tribe of Joseph will be fruitful and steady, protected by YHWH, consistent with the integrity Joseph has demonstrated so far. Success is identified with fruitful growth and many children. In this growth, the blessing "of the breast and womb" is certainly critical, offering a counter-balance to the patriarchal emphasis on fathers and sons!

The blessing on Joseph has a stream of names for God: Mighty One, Shepherd, Rock, Jacob's God, the Almighty.

Genesis 49:27, Jacob speaks to Benjamin
"Benjamin is a ravenous wolf; in the morning he devours the prey, in the evening he divides the plunder."

The final child is a wolf!?

Genesis 49:28-33, Jacob dies
All these are the twelve tribes of Israel, and this is what their father said to them when he blessed them, giving each the blessing appropriate to him. 

    

Then he gave them these instructions: "I am about to be gathered to my people. Bury me with my fathers in the cave in the field of Ephron the Hittite, the cave in the field of Machpelah, near Mamre in Canaan, which Abraham bought as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite, along with the field. There Abraham and his wife Sarah were buried, there Isaac and his wife Rebekah were buried, and there I buried Leah.  The field and the cave in it were bought from the Hittites."

    

When Jacob had finished giving instructions to his sons, he drew his feet up into the bed, breathed his last and was gathered to his people.

The narrator now identifies these sons with the future tribes of Israel.

Jacob wants his body buried in the same region as his ancestors and Leah. He is only a sojourner, a pilgrim, in Egypt.  His body belongs in the Promised Land of Abraham and Isaac.

Jacob's words form an ancient piece of Hebrew poetry, criticizing the three oldest sons, blessing the rest, then finally seeking the return of his body to the Covenant Land.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is am,

 עַם

a masculine noun meaning "people." It occurs almost 2000 times in the Old Testament. Here, in verse 33, we see Jacob "gathered to his people", joining his ancestors in the grave.

Some Random Thoughts

Once again we have the ancient phrase "gathered to his people", indicating, presumably, joining one's ancestors in the grave, in Sheol. We have, at this point in the Old Testament, no description of an afterlife.

First published Feb 27, 2023; updated Feb 26, 2026

Genesis 48, Blessing on Ephraim and Manasseh

Jacob and his clan have settled in Egypt.

Genesis 48:1-7, Jacob is dying
Some time later Joseph was told, "Your father is ill." So he took his two sons Manasseh and Ephraim along with him. When Jacob was told, "Your son Joseph has come to you," Israel rallied his strength and sat up on the bed.

    

Jacob said to Joseph, "God Almighty appeared to me at Luz in the land of Canaan, and there he blessed me and said to me, `I am going to make you fruitful and will increase your numbers. I will make you a community of peoples, and I will give this land as an everlasting possession to your descendants after you.' Now then, your two sons born to you in Egypt before I came to you here will be reckoned as mine; Ephraim and Manasseh will be mine, just as Reuben and Simeon are mine. Any children born to you after them will be yours; in the territory they inherit they will be reckoned under the names of their brothers. As I was returning from Paddan, to my sorrow Rachel died in the land of Canaan while we were still on the way, a little distance from Ephrath. So I buried her there beside the road to Ephrath" (that is, Bethlehem).

Jacob briefly recounts his life, mentioning his grief for Rachel and her burial near Ephrath. (The author apparently adds the note that Ephrath is the same as Bethlehem.)  

Jacob adopts Ephraim and Manasseh as his own. This will be important later when there are twelve tribes plus the tribe of priests, the descendants of Levi. Moreover, he seems to treat them as his first- and second-born, replacing Reuben and Simeon in that order. (See also 1 Chronicles 5:1-2.) Reuben, Simeon and Levi have all dishonored Jacob, Reuben by sleeping with Jacob's concubine and Simeon and Levi by their massacre of the men of Shechem

Genesis 48:8-10, Jacob looks on Joseph's sons
When Israel saw the sons of Joseph, he asked, "Who are these?"

    

"They are the sons God has given me here," Joseph said to his father. Then Israel said, "Bring them to me so I may bless them."

    

Now Israel's eyes were failing because of old age, and he could hardly see. So Joseph brought his sons close to him, and his father kissed them and embraced them.

At the beginning of the chapter, Jacob adopts Ephraim and Manasseh; here he seems to finally meet them.  Commentators suggest that the question, "Who are these?" could either follow from his failing eyesight or could be merely part of a ritual question in an adoption ceremony.

Genesis 48:11-13, Praying over Ephraim and Manasseh
Israel said to Joseph, "I never expected to see your face again, and now God has allowed me to see your children too." Then Joseph removed them from Israel's knees and bowed down with his face to the ground. And Joseph took both of them, Ephraim on his right toward Israel's left hand and Manasseh on his left toward Israel's right hand, and brought them close to him.

     

Israel had given up hope of seeing Joseph in this life. Yet he gets to see not only Joseph, but Joseph's "seed", Ephraim and Manasseh!

Genesis 48:14-16, Praying over Ephraim and Manasseh

But Israel reached out his right hand and put it on Ephraim's head, though he was the younger, and crossing his arms, he put his left hand on Manasseh's head, even though Manasseh was the firstborn. Then he blessed Joseph and said, "May the God before whom my fathers Abraham and Isaac walked, the God who has been my shepherd all my life to this day, the Angel who has delivered me from all harm --may he bless these boys. May they be called by my name and the names of my fathers Abraham and Isaac, and may they increase greatly upon the earth."

The blessing, putting both men (grown young men here) at his knees is apparently traditional. Switching hands is not. The one blessed by the right hand receives a superior blessing, a higher ranking. Crafty Jacob continues to focus on the second born, giving him status over the first born, as he had in taking Esau's birthright and in seeking to marry Rachel.

Genesis 48:17-22, Ephraim over Manasseh
When Joseph saw his father placing his right hand on Ephraim's head he was displeased; so he took hold of his father's hand to move it from Ephraim's head to Manasseh's head.  Joseph said to him, "No, my father, this one is the firstborn; put your right hand on his head."

    

But his father refused and said, "I know, my son, I know. He too will become a people, and he too will become great. Nevertheless, his younger brother will be greater than he, and his descendants will become a group of nations."

    

He blessed them that day and said, "In your name will Israel pronounce this blessing: `May God make you like Ephraim and Manasseh.'" So he put Ephraim ahead of Manasseh.

    

Then Israel said to Joseph, "I am about to die, but God will be with you and take you back to the land of your fathers. And to you, as one who is over your brothers, I give the ridge of land I took from the Amorites with my sword and my bow."

Jacob was the second born, following Esau out of the womb in Genesis 25. Here Jacob makes sure to give the superior blessing to Joseph's second-born son, Ephraim.

Jacob looks forward to a day (centuries later) when his descendants will return to the land of Canaan.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

The Hebrew word shekem,

שְׁכֶם

literally "shoulder" or "portion"; is translated by the NIV "ridge of land" in verse 22. The meaning of that word in the blessing context is unclear and is debated by commentators. The NIV footnotes give an alternative translation, suggesting the place name Shechem, where the brothers Simeon and Levi massacred villagers. Alter suggests that the term means "with single intent", that is, with purpose. Others suggest that since the word can mean "portion' then it implies here an extra portion of inheritance for Joseph, which would naturally follow the birthright.

Some Random Thoughts

We saw in the last chapter that despite arriving in Egypt, Jacob wants to be buried in Canaan, near the graves of one wife and his parents and grandparents. The emphasis on a return to the land of Canaan continues in this chapter, along with the theme of the birthright -- and one more switch between the first- and second-born.

What is Jacob's view of the afterlife? Do his burial wishes and emphasis on the future return to the land have anything to do with a view that he might someday have a role, even after his death?

First published Feb 25, 2023; updated Feb 25, 2026

Genesis 47, Shepherds in Egypt

Jacob's tribe has arrived in Egypt.

Genesis 47:1-10, Jacob meets Pharaoh
Joseph went and told Pharaoh, "My father and brothers, with their flocks and herds and everything they own, have come from the land of Canaan and are now in Goshen." He chose five of his brothers and presented them before Pharaoh.

    

Pharaoh asked the brothers, "What is your occupation?" 

    

"Your servants are shepherds," they replied to Pharaoh, "just as our fathers were." They also said to him, "We have come to live here awhile, because the famine is severe in Canaan and your servants' flocks have no pasture. So now, please let your servants settle in Goshen."

    

Pharaoh said to Joseph, "Your father and your brothers have come to you, and the land of Egypt is before you; settle your father and your brothers in the best part of the land. Let them live in Goshen. And if you know of any among them with special ability, put them in charge of my own livestock."

    

Then Joseph brought his father Jacob in and presented him before Pharaoh. After Jacob blessed Pharaoh, Pharaoh asked him, "How old are you?"

    

And Jacob said to Pharaoh, "The years of my pilgrimage are a hundred and thirty. My years have been few and difficult, and they do not equal the years of the pilgrimage of my fathers." Then Jacob blessed Pharaoh and went out from his presence.

Following the lead of Joseph, Jacob and his family explain that they are herders and are given area in Goshen to take their herds. Goshen (see this Wikipedia entry) is likely to have been a fertile part of the Nile delta. Pharaoh seems to have some of his own livestock in the region.

The Pharaoh welcomes and rewards Jacob's clan.  Looking back at the Abrahamic covenant, YHWH has promised to use the descendants of Abraham to bless all people groups and, through Joseph, the Egyptian people have avoided starvation and even prospered.

Jacob has been a wanderer (Hebrew magor, מָגוּר), on a "pilgrimage" for 130 years.  The terms "wanderer", "sojourner", "pilgrim", easily apply to the life of this crafty fox, now the mature leader of a large and prosperous clan.

Genesis 47:11-12, Joseph settle Jacob and family
So Joseph settled his father and his brothers in Egypt and gave them property in the best part of the land, the district of Rameses, as Pharaoh directed. Joseph also provided his father and his brothers and all his father's household with food, according to the number of their children.

Jacob and his family are welcomed as prominent citizens.

The mention of a "district of Rameses" is interesting. The Pharaohs Rameses I and Rameses II lived in the 13th Century BC, much later than the time of Joseph.  It is likely that our narrator is using the term "district of Rameses" from his own time.

Genesis 47:13-19, Joseph grows in power as the famine persists
There was no food, however, in the whole region because the famine was severe; both Egypt and Canaan wasted away because of the famine. Joseph collected all the money that was to be found in Egypt and Canaan in payment for the grain they were buying, and he brought it to Pharaoh's palace.         

When the money of the people of Egypt and Canaan was gone, all Egypt came to Joseph and said, "Give us food. Why should we die before your eyes? Our money is used up."

    

"Then bring your livestock," said Joseph. "I will sell you food in exchange for your livestock, since your money is gone." So they brought their livestock to Joseph, and he gave them food in exchange for their horses, their sheep and goats, their cattle and donkeys. And he brought them through that year with food in exchange for all their livestock. 

    

When that year was over, they came to him the following year and said, "We cannot hide from our lord the fact that since our money is gone and our livestock belongs to you, there is nothing left for our lord except our bodies and our land.  Why should we perish before your eyes--we and our land as well? Buy us and our land in exchange for food, and we with our land will be in bondage to Pharaoh. Give us seed so that we may live and not die, and that the land may not become desolate."

By careful administration during the famine, Joseph provides power and wealth to the Pharaoh.

Genesis 47:20-26, Joseph develops a fifth
So Joseph bought all the land in Egypt for Pharaoh. The Egyptians, one and all, sold their fields, because the famine was too severe for them. The land became Pharaoh's, and Joseph reduced the people to servitude, from one end of Egypt to the other. However, he did not buy the land of the priests, because they received a regular allotment from Pharaoh and had food enough from the allotment Pharaoh gave them. That is why they did not sell their land.

    

Joseph said to the people, "Now that I have bought you and your land today for Pharaoh, here is seed for you so you can plant the ground. But when the crop comes in, give a fifth of it to Pharaoh. The other four-fifths you may keep as seed for the fields and as food for yourselves and your households and your children." 

    

"You have saved our lives," they said. "May we find favor in the eyes of our lord; we will be in bondage to Pharaoh."

   

So Joseph established it as a law concerning land in Egypt--still in force today--that a fifth of the produce belongs to Pharaoh. It was only the land of the priests that did not become Pharaoh's.

Joseph seems pretty oppressive?  Is the point here that he is a capable administrator for the Pharaoh? There is dispute about the phrase "Joseph reduced the people to servitude" in verse 21. According to the NIV footnotes, that translation follows the Samaritan Pentateuch, Septuagint and the Vulgate. The Masoretic text translates as "he moved the people into cities." Along with the differences in texts, one also sees a difference in the brutality of Joseph's actions.

Note the phrase "still in force today" in verse 26.  Presumably "today" refers to the time of the writing about this passage, presumably some centuries later.

Genesis 47:27-31, Jacob's last request
Now the Israelites settled in Egypt in the region of Goshen. They acquired property there and were fruitful and increased greatly in number.

    

Jacob lived in Egypt seventeen years, and the years of his life were a hundred and forty-seven. When the time drew near for Israel to die, he called for his son Joseph and said to him, "If I have found favor in your eyes, put your hand under my thigh and promise that you will show me kindness and faithfulness. Do not bury me in Egypt, but when I rest with my fathers, carry me out of Egypt and bury me where they are buried." 

    "

I will do as you say," he said.

    

"Swear to me," he said. 

Then Joseph swore to him, and Israel worshiped as he leaned on the top of his staff.

In verse 31, the Hebrew text is literally translated "bowed down at the head of his bed."  In the ancient Near East it was customary to have one's idols at the head of the bed and so to bow down at the head of the bed implied worship.

By putting his hand under his father's thigh, Joseph is indicating the strength of the promise he is about to make. A similar oath was made by a servant of Abraham (see Genesis 24:9) two generations back.

Jacob is dying.  His final wishes and blessings are the subject of the next two chapters, as we begin to close out the book of Genesis.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day mittah, 

מִטָּה

a feminine noun meaning "bed." This word has the same Hebrew consonants as mattah (מַטֶּה), a masculine noun, meaning "staff" or "tribe" and so a mere change in vowel pointing could confuse one word with the other. (In the ancient text, there was no vowel pointing.)  In verse 31, above, did Jacob bow down at the head of his bed? Or did he bow down on the top of his staff?

Some Random Thoughts

There are different opinions on when Joseph reigned in Egypt. An early date (see an argument here) places his reign about 1850 BC, in the middle of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. (The Middle Kingdom ran from about 2040 BC until about 1650 BC.) During this time the capital of Egypt would've been at Thebes in the upper Nile region.)

It is possible that Joseph reigned at a later date, maybe at the end of the Middle Kingdom in the 16th Century BC. The later date allows for the Exodus of Moses to occur during the reign of Ramsey II and puts the capital of Egypt at Memphis, 350 miles north of Thebes, near the Nile delta and near the region of Goshen. (Does Pharaoh, at the time of Joseph, live near Goshen?)

Wikipedia (of course) has a nice article on the history of Egypt.

First published Feb 24, 2023; updated Feb 24, 2026

Genesis 46, Caravan to Egypt

The sons of Jacob have returned to him in Canaan, telling him the good news of Joseph's survival and of his invitation to join him in Egypt.

Genesis 46:1-4, God speaks to Jacob

So Israel set out with all that was his, and when he reached Beersheba, he offered sacrifices to the God of his father Isaac. 

And God spoke to Israel in a vision at night and said, "Jacob! Jacob!" 

    

"Here I am," he replied.

    

"I am God, the God of your father," he said. "Do not be afraid to go down to Egypt, for I will make you into a great nation there.  I will go down to Egypt with you, and I will surely bring you back again. And Joseph's own hand will close your eyes."

Jacob passed through Beersheba in Genesis 28:10-11, on his way north to see Laban, many many decades before. It was near there that he first encountered God, in a dream of a staircase to heaven. A great deal has happened since then and God reassures Jacob that His plan to bless Jacob is still in effect. As is the plan for Jacob's descendants to inhabit Canaan.

Genesis 46:5-7, Immigration
Then Jacob left Beersheba, and Israel's sons took their father Jacob and their children and their wives in the carts that Pharaoh had sent to transport him. They also took with them their livestock and the possessions they had acquired in Canaan, and Jacob and all his offspring went to Egypt. He took with him to Egypt his sons and grandsons and his daughters and granddaughters--all his offspring.

All of Jacob's possessions go with him to Egypt. Nothing but old graves and memories are left behind.

Genesis 46:8-15, Descendants of Jacob through Leah
These are the names of the sons of Israel (Jacob and his descendants) who went to Egypt: Reuben the firstborn of Jacob.

The sons of Reuben: Hanoch, Pallu, Hezron and Carmi.

    

The sons of Simeon: Jemuel, Jamin, Ohad, Jakin, Zohar and Shaul the son of a Canaanite woman.

    

The sons of Levi: Gershon, Kohath and Merari.

    

The sons of Judah: Er, Onan, Shelah, Perez and Zerah (but Er and Onan had died in the land of Canaan). The sons of Perez: Hezron and Hamul.

    

The sons of Issachar: Tola, Puah, Jashub and Shimron.

     

The sons of Zebulun: Sered, Elon and Jahleel.

    

These were the sons Leah bore to Jacob in Paddan Aram, besides his daughter Dinah. These sons and daughters of his were thirty-three in all.

    

As in many of these major transitions in Genesis, the author takes a moment to record the important genealogies. In the caravan are 33 descendants of Jacob and Leah (if we count Perez and Zerah but not Er and Onan.) We include the daughter, Dinah, in the count, but no other women.

Genesis 46:16-18, Descendants of Jacob through Zilpah

The sons of Gad: Zephon, Haggi, Shuni, Ezbon, Eri, Arodi and Areli.

    

The sons of Asher: Imnah, Ishvah, Ishvi and Beriah. Their sister was Serah. The sons of Beriah: Heber and Malkiel.

     

These were the children born to Jacob by Zilpah, whom Laban had given to his daughter Leah--sixteen in all.

    

In the caravan are also 16 descendants of Jacob and Zilpah, including one woman, Serah.

There are some discrepancies between different ancient manuscripts on some of the names in verses 8 to 16, and some differences between other genealogical lists (say the NIV footnotes.)  In verse 13 the name "Puah" follows the Samaritan Pentateuch and some Syriac manuscripts as does 1 Chronicles 7:1 but the Masoretic Text has "Puvah."  Similarly "Jashub" follows the Samaritan and Syriac manuscripts and and also Numbers 26:24 and 1 Chronicles 7:1 but is apparently "Iob" in the Masoretic text. There are similar issues with "Zephon" (see Numbers 26:15); in the Masoretic Text this is "Ziphion". There are additional discrepancies between this chapter and lists given in Numbers 26. Notable are descendants of Simeon, Asher, and Benjamin. Walton, on p. 685 of his Genesis commentary, provides additional details.

Genesis 46:19-22, Descendants of Jacob through Rachel

The sons of Jacob's wife Rachel: Joseph and Benjamin.

In Egypt, Manasseh and Ephraim were born to Joseph by Asenath daughter of Potiphera, priest of On.

    

The sons of Benjamin: Bela, Beker, Ashbel, Gera, Naaman, Ehi, Rosh, Muppim, Huppim and Ard.

    

These were the sons of Rachel who were born to Jacob--fourteen in all.

    

We record fourteen descendants of Jacob and Rachel. This includes Joseph and his two sons, who were already in Egypt. We now have a count of 63 names....

Genesis 46:23-25, Descendants of Jacob through Bilhah

The son of Dan: Hushim.

    

The sons of Naphtali: Jahziel, Guni, Jezer and Shillem.

     

These were the sons born to Jacob by Bilhah, whom Laban had given to his daughter Rachel--seven in all.

    

And finally, seven descendants of Jacob and Bilhah.

Genesis 46: 26-27, Those traveling to Egypt

All those who went to Egypt with Jacob--those who were his direct descendants, not counting his sons' wives--numbered sixty-six persons. With the two sons who had been born to Joseph in Egypt, the members of Jacob's family, which went to Egypt, were seventy in all.

The number 70 is significant in Hebrew culture as it represents an expansion of the number 7, the number of Days of Creation. We see 7, 70, 70 plus 7 and 70 times 7 at various times in the Old or New Testament. For example, in Genesis 10, the number of people/people groups in the Table of Nations totals to 70.  Here the descendants of Jacob in the caravan from Canaan to Egypt total 70, if we count Joseph's sons and count two women. However, even this number here has some difficulties: the Septuagint has nine children of Joseph, not two sons and then totals the number to 75. This number is repeated in Acts 7:14 when Philip, on trial before the Sanhedrin, quotes from the Septuagint. This discrepancy between the ancient manuscripts also occurs in Exodus 1:15.  (As a mathematician, I find this play on numbers interesting ... but, like most discrepancies in the ancient manuscripts, it is irrelevant to the main point of the text.)

Genesis 46:28-30, Joseph greets his father
Now Jacob sent Judah ahead of him to Joseph to get directions to Goshen. When they arrived in the region of Goshen, Joseph had his chariot made ready and went to Goshen to meet his father Israel. As soon as Joseph appeared before him, he threw his arms around his father and wept for a long time.

    

Israel said to Joseph, "Now I am ready to die, since I have seen for myself that you are still alive."

Judah is leading the caravan to Egypt. Joseph welcomes his father and his father weeps in joy. Jacob's life has turned from one of strife and disappointment to a mature one of success and family unity.

Genesis 46:31-34, Joseph plans a conversation with Pharaoh
Then Joseph said to his brothers and to his father's household, "I will go up and speak to Pharaoh and will say to him, `My brothers and my father's household, who were living in the land of Canaan, have come to me. The men are shepherds; they tend livestock, and they have brought along their flocks and herds and everything they own.' When Pharaoh calls you in and asks, `What is your occupation?' you should answer, `Your servants have tended livestock from our boyhood on, just as our fathers did.' Then you will be allowed to settle in the region of Goshen, for all shepherds are detestable to the Egyptians."

Joseph prepares a place for Jacob's tribe in Egypt. He tells the family how they are to respond to the king.  Once again we see a certain attitude that some Egyptians have about the Hebrews; commentators find this confusing as in the next chapter Pharaoh seems to view Goshen as a reward for them.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day ra'ah

רָעָה

a verb meaning "to shepherd" or "to tend" (flocks.) This is the profession that Jacob claims.

Some Random Thoughts

The long arc of Genesis, emphasizing the promised land of Canaan, ends with a caravan to Egypt, welcomed by a powerful king.

First published Feb 23, 2023; updated Feb 23, 2026