Joshua 14, The Inheritance of Caleb

The land east of the Jordan has been given to the transjordan tribes Gad, Reuben and part of Manasseh. Now the land west of the Jordan is to be divided up.

Joshua 14:1-5, Assigned by lot

Now these are the areas the Israelites received as an inheritance in the land of Canaan, which Eleazar the priest, Joshua son of Nun and the heads of the tribal clans of Israel allotted to them. Their inheritances were assigned by lot to the nine-and-a-half tribes, as the LORD had commanded through Moses.

    

Moses had granted the two-and-a-half tribes their inheritance east of the Jordan but had not granted the Levites an inheritance among the rest for the sons of Joseph had become two tribes--Manasseh and Ephraim. The Levites received no share of the land but only towns to live in, with pasturelands for their flocks and herds.

    

So the Israelites divided the land, just as the LORD had commanded Moses.

The pattern followed in Joshua here follows earlier agreements with Moses. As reported earlier, the 2 1/2 tribes took over the area east of the Jordan. The remaining 8 1/2 tribes will receive land west of the Jordan. The Levites will be given lands spread out among all the tribes.

In the commissioning of Joshua (see Numbers 27: 18-23), Eleazar was to help Joshua make decisions. Presumably the assignments "by lot" included use of the Urim/Thummin on the priest's breastplate.

Joshua 14:6-12, Caleb's request

Now the men of Judah approached Joshua at Gilgal, and Caleb son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite said to him, "You know what the LORD said to Moses the man of God at Kadesh Barnea about you and me. I was forty years old when Moses the servant of the LORD sent me from Kadesh Barnea to explore the land. And I brought him back a report according to my convictions, but my brothers who went up with me made the hearts of the people melt with fear. I, however, followed the LORD my God wholeheartedly.

    

"So on that day Moses swore to me, `The land on which your feet have walked will be your inheritance and that of your children forever, because you have followed the LORD my God wholeheartedly.'

    

"Now then, just as the LORD promised, he has kept me alive for forty-five years since the time he said this to Moses, while Israel moved about in the desert. So here I am today, eighty-five years old!  I am still as strong today as the day Moses sent me out; I'm just as vigorous to go out to battle now as I was then. Now give me this hill country that the LORD promised me that day. You yourself heard then that the Anakites were there and their cities were large and fortified, but, the LORD helping me, I will drive them out just as he said."

Caleb reminds Joshua of earlier promises, quoting an agreement from Deuteronomy 1:36.

Joshua 14:13-15, Joshua responds

Then Joshua blessed Caleb son of Jephunneh and gave him Hebron as his inheritance. So Hebron has belonged to Caleb son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite ever since, because he followed the LORD, the God of Israel, wholeheartedly.  (Hebron used to be called Kiriath Arba after Arba, who was the greatest man among the Anakites.) 

    

Then the land had rest from war.

Caleb gets an inheritance for his faithfulness. The land now has "rest".

The concept of rest, here the Hebrew word shaqat (שָׁקַט), will be a theme in the New Testament book of Hebrews. Joshua's rest is an edenic ideal, never quite achievable on earth for any length of time.  We will see this "rest" fall apart in the book of Judges.

First published June 10, 2023; updated June 10, 2026

Joshua 13, The Possessions of Levi, Gad, Reuben and Half-Manasseh

The Israelites have conquered Canaan -- or at least most of it.

Joshua 13:1-5, YHWH's instructions as Joshua grows old.

When Joshua was old and well advanced in years, the LORD said to him, "You are very old, and there are still very large areas of land to be taken over.

    

"This is the land that remains: all the regions of the Philistines and Geshurites: from the Shihor River on the east of Egypt to the territory of Ekron on the north, all of it counted as Canaanite (the territory of the five Philistine rulers in Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gath and Ekron--that of the Avvites); from the south, all the land of the Canaanites, from Arah of the Sidonians as far as Aphek, the region of the Amorites, the area of the Gebalites; and all Lebanon to the east, from Baal Gad below Mount Hermon to Lebo Hamath."

This account begins with Joshua "old and well advanced in years". A similar statement will appear in Joshua 23:1-2, as we wrap up the leadership of Joshua.

This is the first indication in the book of Joshua that not all regions of the land had been conquered. The conquest of the land was going to take a long time (Deuteronomy 7:22) and here, after the first twelve chapters, we now jump to a later period where it is clear that the conquest is still not complete.

The area of the Gebalites is the area around Byblos, a city on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in modern Lebanon. (NIV footnotes: "The area of Lebo Hamath" could be translated "Or to the entrance to Hamath")

 

Joshua 13:6-14, Possessions of Manasseh

"As for all the inhabitants of the mountain regions from Lebanon to Misrephoth Maim, that is, all the Sidonians, I myself will drive them out before the Israelites. Be sure to allocate this land to Israel for an inheritance, as I have instructed you, and divide it as an inheritance among the nine tribes and half of the tribe of Manasseh."

The other half of Manasseh, the Reubenites and the Gadites had received the inheritance that Moses had given them east of the Jordan, as he, the servant of the LORD, had assigned it to them. It extended from Aroer on the rim of the Arnon Gorge, and from the town in the middle of the gorge, and included the whole plateau of Medeba as far as Dibon, and all the towns of Sihon king of the Amorites, who ruled in Heshbon, out to the border of the Ammonites. It also included Gilead, the territory of the people of Geshur and Maacah, all of Mount Hermon and all Bashan as far as Salecah--that is, the whole kingdom of Og in Bashan, who had reigned in Ashtaroth and Edrei and had survived as one of the last of the Rephaites. Moses had defeated them and taken over their land.

    

But the Israelites did not drive out the people of Geshur and Maacah, so they continue to live among the Israelites to this day.

The inheritance of Manasseh is described. A complaint, not all that common in th e book ofJoshua, is that the Israelites did not succeed in conquering the land; some people continue to live there "to this day."

Joshua 13:14, Tribe of Levi is special

But to the tribe of Levi he gave no inheritance, since the offerings made by fire to the LORD, the God of Israel, are their inheritance, as he promised them.

The tribe of Levi has not land but YHWH as their inheritance! This is a strange and special honor. But the practicalities of the Levites living in the land is still to be discussed.

Joshua 13:15-23, Possessions of Reuben

This is what Moses had given to the tribe of Reuben, clan by clan: The territory from Aroer on the rim of the Arnon Gorge, and from the town in the middle of the gorge, and the whole plateau past Medeba to Heshbon and all its towns on the plateau, including Dibon, Bamoth Baal, Beth Baal Meon, Jahaz, Kedemoth, Mephaath, Kiriathaim, Sibmah, Zereth Shahar on the hill in the valley, Beth Peor, the slopes of Pisgah, and Beth Jeshimoth --all the towns on the plateau and the entire realm of Sihon king of the Amorites, who ruled at Heshbon. Moses had defeated him and the Midianite chiefs, Evi, Rekem, Zur, Hur and Reba--princes allied with Sihon--who lived in that country.

    

In addition to those slain in battle, the Israelites had put to the sword Balaam son of Beor, who practiced divination. The boundary of the Reubenites was the bank of the Jordan. These towns and their villages were the inheritance of the Reubenites, clan by clan.

A map of these possessions will be given below.

Practicing divination (which was related to welcoming other gods) was always a capital crime in Israel.

Joshua 13:24-28, Possessions of Gad

This is what Moses had given to the tribe of Gad, clan by clan: The territory of Jazer, all the towns of Gilead and half the Ammonite country as far as Aroer, near Rabbah; and from Heshbon to Ramath Mizpah and Betonim, and from Mahanaim to the territory of Debir; and in the valley, Beth Haram, Beth Nimrah, Succoth and Zaphon with the rest of the realm of Sihon king of Heshbon (the east side of the Jordan, the territory up to the end of the Sea of Kinnereth). These towns and their villages were the inheritance of the Gadites, clan by clan.

The Sea of Kinnereth is the Sea of Galilee. The possessions given to Gad run east from the Jordan River, into an area called Jazer and Gilead. This land is now part of the modern country of Jordan.

Joshua 13:29-33, Possessions of the half-tribe of Manasseh

This is what Moses had given to the half-tribe of Manasseh, that is, to half the family of the descendants of Manasseh, clan by clan: The territory extending from Mahanaim and including all of Bashan, the entire realm of Og king of Bashan--all the settlements of Jair in Bashan, sixty towns, half of Gilead, and Ashtaroth and Edrei (the royal cities of Og in Bashan). This was for the descendants of Makir son of Manasseh--for half of the sons of Makir, clan by clan. This is the inheritance Moses had given when he was in the plains of Moab across the Jordan east of Jericho.

Here half of the tribe of Manasseh has been given, already, this territory on the east side of the Jordan River.

Joshua 13:33, Tribe of Levi is special

But to the tribe of Levi, Moses had given no inheritance; the LORD, the God of Israel, is their inheritance, as he promised them.

We repeat the earlier statement about the tribe of Levi, leaving out the phrase (verse 14) about "offerings by fire."

A map of the divisions of Canaan, across the following ten chapters, is given above.

(This map can be found at this link.) The tribe of Manasseh has a large region (in blue) west of the Jordan and another region (in yellow) east of the  Jordan. Both portions border the Sea of Galilee (Sea of Kinnerith.) There are other maps with slightly different drawings; there are minor disagreements about how the boundaries translate into modern times.

First published June 9, 2023; updated June 9, 2026

Joshua 12, Summary of Conquered Kings

Most of Canaan has been conquered by the campaigns of Joshua. Now we have an interlude to our history, a recounting of the occupied territories, the defeated kings, and eventually the assignment of regions of Canaan to the twelve tribes.

Joshua 12:1-3, Amorites

These are the kings of the land whom the Israelites had defeated and whose territory they took over east of the Jordan, from the Arnon Gorge to Mount Hermon, including all the eastern side of the Arabah: Sihon king of the Amorites, who reigned in Heshbon. He ruled from Aroer on the rim of the Arnon Gorge--from the middle of the gorge--to the Jabbok River, which is the border of the Ammonites. This included half of Gilead. 

    

He also ruled over the eastern Arabah from the Sea of Kinnereth to the Sea of the Arabah (the Salt Sea), to Beth Jeshimoth, and then southward below the slopes of Pisgah.

The Amorites, who practiced the religion of Molech, are defeated.

(The Sea of Kinnereth is the modern Sea of Galilee; the Salt Sea is the Dead Sea.)

Joshua 12:4-6, King of Bashan defeated

And the territory of Og king of Bashan, one of the last of the Rephaites, who reigned in Ashtaroth and Edrei. He ruled over Mount Hermon, Salecah, all of Bashan to the border of the people of Geshur and Maacah, and half of Gilead to the border of Sihon king of Heshbon. 

Moses, the servant of the LORD, and the Israelites conquered them. And Moses the servant of the LORD gave their land to the Reubenites, the Gadites and the half-tribe of Manasseh to be their possession.

The conquest of Og, east of the Jordan, by Israel under the leadership of Moses, is described in Numbers 21. 

Joshua 12: 7-24, Thirty-one more kings

These are the kings of the land that Joshua and the Israelites conquered on the west side of the Jordan, from Baal Gad in the Valley of Lebanon to Mount Halak, which rises toward Seir (their lands Joshua gave as an inheritance to the tribes of Israel according to their tribal divisions-- the hill country, the western foothills, the Arabah, the mountain slopes, the desert and the Negev--the lands of the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites):
    the king of Jericho one 

    the king of Ai (near Bethel) one
    the king of Jerusalem one 

    the king of Hebron one
    the king of Jarmuth one 

    the king of Lachish one

    the king of Eglon one

    the king of Gezer one
    the king of Debir one 

    the king of Geder one
    the king of Hormah one 

    the king of Arad one
    the king of Libnah one 

    the king of Adullam one
    the king of Makkedah one 

    the king of Bethel one

    the king of Tappuah one 

    the king of Hepher one

    the king of Aphek one 

    the king of Lasharon one
    the king of Madon one 

    the king of Hazor one
    the king of Shimron Meron one 

    the king of Acshaph one
    the king of Taanach one 

    the king of Megiddo one
    the king of Kedesh one 

    the king of Jokneam in Carmel one
    the king of Dor (in Naphoth Dor) one

    the king of Goyim in Gilgal one
    the king of Tirzah one thirty-one kings in all.
 

We have here a long list of thirty-one kings conquered by the Isrealites, under the leadership first of Moses and then Joshua. This list fits a common practice of the ancient Near East, of describing in detail the great victory and conquests of a king. We are reminded that under Joshua -- supported by miraculous actions of YHWH -- the earlier promise made to Abram in Genesis 12:6-8 is now fulfilled! (See also Joshua 11:23.)

At this point, the main history of the book of Joshua ends. But the author of the book has a goal more important than history. The author wants to describe the results of this history, that is, the distribution of the land to the twelve tribes. 

In exploring the previous chapter of Joshua, I posted a map and a few external links. Here is another link, with maps, on the conquest of Canaan under Joshua's campaigns.

First published June 8, 2023; updated June 8, 2026

Gender Roles in the Old Testament

Even a brief skim of Old Testament passages reveals stark and narrow gender roles, gender roles inherited from the ancient Near Eastern (ANE) culture in which the Old Testament is immersed. 

In the ancient Near East, late in the bronze age, life was vulnerable and often short. Survival in this agrarian society, amidst drought, famine, and tribal war, meant that one should be part of a large tribal community with large flocks and resources. Men were to develop and protect herds of sheep and cattle; men were to have large families and women were to align themselves to such men and have as many children as possible. The goal of men like Abraham and Jacob was to have a rich company of wives, children and animals; the goals of women like Sarah and Rachel was to give these men as many sons as possible and oversee that household, protecting the children, pastures, and home.

Women

From Eve's remark in Genesis 4:1, through Sarah's offer of her servant Hagar to Abram (Genesis 16:1-2), on through Rachel's passionate plea of Jacob (Genesis 30:1), we see women's fervent desire for motherhood. In 1 Samuel 1, Hannah, before the altar, prays fervently for a child -- her lips are moving so the priest thinks she is drunk! -- and despite her husband's declaration of love, she is not satisfied. In Genesis 38, Tamar resorts to prostitution in order to have a child. The book of Ruth describes the work of Naomi to provide her daughter-in-law with a "redeemer" child (see Ruth 4:13-15.)

The narrow roles of men as fathers/providers and women as mothers will seem strange to our culture but simply reflects the culture of the Bronze Age three or four millennia ago. The patriarchal society, with its polygamy, is not an instruction of the Old Testament but a reflection of the ancient Near East. In reporting this history, the Old Testament does not gloss over the effects of this culture. Polygamy leads to jealousy, anger and intrigue; the role of women leads to rape (of Tamar, daughter-in-law of Judah, Genesis 34, of an unnamed concubine, Judges 19, and of Tamar, daughter of David, 2 Samuel 13) and other forms of sexual abuse.  Women are often viewed as property and are given away or taken back. (Samson's wife is given to another man by her father, Judges 14:20; King Saul gives away one of David's wives, 1 Samuel 25:44.) Women might be the spoils of war (Judges 5:30.) Women seemed to have little say in whom they married or with whom they had sexual relations. It is within this patriarchal culture that the covenant of Moses provides some protection -- women had some protection against divorce and rape. In the Deuteronomic Law, captured women were to be carefully treated; women captured in war were not to be sex slaves but were allowed to marry and were to be given time to adjust to that marriage. 

At times the Old Testament relates stories of women who were leaders (Deborah, Jael, Esther) or prophetesses (Miriam, Deborah, Judges 4, Huldah, 2 Kings 22:14)

From a Wikipedia article on Women in the Bible:

"While women are not generally in the forefront of public life in the Bible, those women who are named are usually prominent for reasons outside the ordinary. ... Abigail, David's wife, Esther the Queen, and Jael who drove a tent peg into the enemy commander's temple while he slept, are a few examples of women who turned the tables on men with power. The founding matriarchs are mentioned by name, as are some prophetesses, judges, heroines, and queens, while the common woman is largely, though not completely, unseen."

Some fascinating aspects of the role of women can be seen in the two Old Testament books named after women: Ruth and Esther. In the book of Ruth, we see Ruth (carefully guided by her mother-in-law), proposing to Boaz, followed by Boaz's public negotiation for the hand of Ruth. (Most of that book is told from a woman's point of view!) In the book of Esther, the story opens with Queen Vashti ignoring her husband's call to display herself at a banquet. In response to her insubordination, the king's nobles worry that Vashti is encouraging women to disrespect their husbands! Thus Vashti is exiled and Esther enters the scene.

The role of women in the ancient Near East was more complicated and subtle than I have described it above. The complexity can be seen in Proverbs 31:13-31, where a woman is an expert merchant, cares for the poor and speaks with wisdom. The Song of Songs describes romantic (and erotic!) love, a love that did not emphasize having children.  Much of that book is from the point of view of the woman. There are other places which make it clear that a woman was valued more than just as a mother of children. But motherhood was certainly the most obvious role.

Men

The Torah assumes (mandates) that good men be good husbands and fathers. They might have numerous wives but were to care for them and not mistreat them. Even if a man loved his second wife more than his first wife, he could not take away the "first wife" role from her. A man was not to covet wives and concubines of another man. 

In this ancient culture, where reproduction (and thus sex) play central roles in one's standing in society, we also see a strange rite.  When Abram is promised by YHWH that he will be a father of many nations, that promise of a great tribe, "as many as the stars in the sky", is sealed by cutting the foreskin of Abram's penis. The rite of circumcision directly connects a man's penis to this promise of fathering a large nation.  From then on, for those in the covenant, a man demonstrated his membership in the covenant by having his reproductive organ cut and women demonstrated their membership in this ancient covenant by their connection to such a man. (I think this explains Zipporah's actions in Exodus 4:25-26; she identifies herself with her circumcised husband and son.)

For a Christian reading the Old Testament, it is important to recognize that the text is usually descriptive, not prescriptive. There is no need to defend polygamy. This is history; we need not defend that patriarchal viewpoint. I, for one, am relieved that we no long live in the ancient Near Eastern culture!

First published May 28, 2023; updated June 7, 2026

Joshua 11, Conquest of the Northern Kingdoms

The Israelites have subdued much of southern Canaan and overcome a dozen small kingdoms or more. We now move into the northern kingdoms of Canaan.

Joshua 11:1-5, The king of Hazor organizes opposition

When Jabin king of Hazor heard of this, he sent word to Jobab king of Madon, to the kings of Shimron and Acshaph, and to the northern kings who were in the mountains, in the Arabah south of Kinnereth, in the western foothills and in Naphoth Dor on the west; to the Canaanites in the east and west; to the Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites and Jebusites in the hill country; and to the Hivites below Hermon in the region of Mizpah. They came out with all their troops and a large number of horses and chariots--a huge army, as numerous as the sand on the seashore.

    

All these kings joined forces and made camp together at the Waters of Merom, to fight against Israel.

This paragraph mimics the beginnings of the previous chapter. Here the northern kings unite. The king of Hazor, out of fear of this new power in the region, organizes opposition to Israel. The army is said to be "huge"and "as numerous as the sand on the seashore," a clear example of hyperbole.

(NIV footnotes: In verse 2, "in Naphoth Dor" may mean "in the heights of Dor.")

Joshua 11:6-8, YHWH is with Joshua

The LORD said to Joshua, "Do not be afraid of them, because by this time tomorrow I will hand all of them over to Israel, slain. You are to hamstring their horses and burn their chariots."

    

So Joshua and his whole army came against them suddenly at the Waters of Merom and attacked them, and the LORD gave them into the hand of Israel. They defeated them and pursued them all the way to Greater Sidon, to Misrephoth Maim, and to the Valley of Mizpah on the east, until no survivors were left.

Despite the "huge" army, God leads Joshua to victory.

Joshua 11:9-12, "Total destruction"

Joshua did to them as the LORD had directed: He hamstrung their horses and burned their chariots.

     

At that time Joshua turned back and captured Hazor and put its king to the sword. (Hazor had been the head of all these kingdoms.)  Everyone in it they put to the sword. They totally destroyed them, not sparing anything that breathed, and he burned up Hazor itself. Joshua took all these royal cities and their kings and put them to the sword. He totally destroyed them, as Moses the servant of the LORD had commanded.

Once again, the author emphasizes "total destruction". As always, the NIV footnotes explain that the Hebrew word for that phrase really means "completely devoted to God, " a somewhat ambiguous phrase.

Joshua 11:13-15, Hazor burned

Yet Israel did not burn any of the cities built on their mounds--except Hazor, which Joshua burned. The Israelites carried off for themselves all the plunder and livestock of these cities, but all the people they put to the sword until they completely destroyed them, not sparing anyone that breathed.

    

As the LORD commanded his servant Moses, so Moses commanded Joshua, and Joshua did it; he left nothing undone of all that the LORD commanded Moses.

In verse 15, we are reminded that Joshua has followed Moses in obedience to God.

Joshua 11:16-20, Region conquered

So Joshua took this entire land: the hill country, all the Negev, the whole region of Goshen, the western foothills, the Arabah and the mountains of Israel with their foothills, from Mount Halak, which rises toward Seir, to Baal Gad in the Valley of Lebanon below Mount Hermon. 

    

He captured all their kings and struck them down, putting them to death.

    

Joshua waged war against all these kings for a long time.

     

Except for the Hivites living in Gibeon, not one city made a treaty of peace with the Israelites, who took them all in battle. For it was the LORD himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the LORD had commanded Moses.

Joshua has waged three campaigns in Canaan. In the first chapters we see the Israelites cross the Jordan and move into the land around Jericho, just north of modern Jerusalem, in the center of Canaan. In chapter 10, the Israelites conquer southern Canaan (Jerusalem and south) and in this chapter, they conquer northern Canaan.

Below, from a website of Garry Stevens, is a map of the three campaigns of Joshua.

(This map was found here.)

Joshua 11:21-23, Rest

At that time Joshua went and destroyed the Anakites from the hill country: from Hebron, Debir and Anab, from all the hill country of Judah, and from all the hill country of Israel. Joshua totally destroyed them and their towns. No Anakites were left in Israelite territory; only in Gaza, Gath and Ashdod did any survive.

    

So Joshua took the entire land, just as the LORD had directed Moses, and he gave it as an inheritance to Israel according to their tribal divisions. Then the land had rest from war.

Israel's conquest is complete and finally the land has rest.

The concept of "rest", for the land and the people, will reappear at various places in the Old Testament and New Testament. The concept will be capped off by the New Testament letter to the Hebrews, which argues that although Yəhōšua (Joshua) brought rest to the land of Israel, only MessiahYēšūa (Yeshua, an alternate form of Joshua) could bring permanent rest to the people of Israel.

First published June 7, 2023; updated June 6, 2026

Joshua 10, Conquest of the Amorites (and a Still Sun!)

The people of Israel have been victorious at Ai. Their reputation spreads across the region. Next on the list is a small community called Jerusalem.

Joshua 10:1-4, Alliance by the Amorites

Now Adoni-Zedek king of Jerusalem heard that Joshua had taken Ai and totally destroyed it, doing to Ai and its king as he had done to Jericho and its king, and that the people of Gibeon had made a treaty of peace with Israel and were living near them. He and his people were very much alarmed at this, because Gibeon was an important city, like one of the royal cities; it was larger than Ai, and all its men were good fighters.

    

So Adoni-Zedek king of Jerusalem appealed to Hoham king of Hebron, Piram king of Jarmuth, Japhia king of Lachish and Debir king of Eglon. "Come up and help me attack Gibeon," he said, "because it has made peace with Joshua and the Israelites."

The Gibeonites are described in 2 Samuel 21 as Amorites. The Amorites are attacking a fellow tribe that has gone over to the side of Israel.

Joshua 10:5-7, Call for help

Then the five kings of the Amorites--the kings of Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish and Eglon--joined forces. They moved up with all their troops and took up positions against Gibeon and attacked it.    

    

The Gibeonites then sent word to Joshua in the camp at Gilgal: "Do not abandon your servants. Come up to us quickly and save us! Help us, because all the Amorite kings from the hill country have joined forces against us."

    

So Joshua marched up from Gilgal with his entire army, including all the best fighting men.

Joshua is called to rescue his new allies. This is an immediate consequence of the treaty with a local tribe.

Joshua 10:8-11, Hailstorm

The LORD said to Joshua, "Do not be afraid of them; I have given them into your hand. Not one of them will be able to withstand you."

     

After an all-night march from Gilgal, Joshua took them by surprise. The LORD threw them into confusion before Israel, who defeated them in a great victory at Gibeon. Israel pursued them along the road going up to Beth Horon and cut them down all the way to Azekah and Makkedah. As they fled before Israel on the road down from Beth Horon to Azekah, the LORD hurled large hailstones down on them from the sky, and more of them died from the hailstones than were killed by the swords of the Israelites.

YHWH promises Joshua that the battle is won. After an overnight march, the Israelites surprise the Amorites and are supported by a powerful hailstorm.

In the cultural context of that day, we are told that "YHWH hurled large hailstones..."  Is this poetic imagery or is it "literal"? I argue that neither response captures the cultural view of nature. To the ancient Hebrew (or their pagan neighbors), God (or the gods) control the functions of nature and make decisions about the weather. A modern Christian might say, "God created a powerful thunderstorm and the hail from the storm was so big that it killed the Amorites." In the ancient Near East, this is exactly what is meant by "God hurled hailstones." 

Joshua 10:12-15, A still sun

On the day the LORD gave the Amorites over to Israel, Joshua said to the LORD in the presence of Israel: 

"O sun, stand still over Gibeon,

O moon, over the Valley of Aijalon." 

So the sun stood still, and the moon stopped, 

till the nation avenged itself on its enemies, 

as it is written in the Book of Jashar. The sun stopped in the middle of the sky and delayed going down about a full day. There has never been a day like it before or since, a day when the LORD listened to a man. Surely the LORD was fighting for Israel!  

    

Then Joshua returned with all Israel to the camp at Gilgal.

Wow!  The physical effects of the sun truly standing still, that is, the earth not rotating, are beyond credibility. A number of commentators suggest some type of optical illusion. Several have suggested something related to the severe thunderstorm; other commentators suggest that this is story-telling hyperbole dramatizing the powerful work of YHWH in the victory. The NIV offsets part of this passage as a poetic piece, possibly from a book of songs, the unknown Book of Jashar.

(What is the Book of Jashar?  There are a number of external references that occur in the Old Testament.  One view of those books is here.  A link to a Wikipedia page on that text is here.)

Joshua 10:16-20, Catching five kings

Now the five kings had fled and hidden in the cave at Makkedah. When Joshua was told that the five kings had been found hiding in the cave at Makkedah, he said, "Roll large rocks up to the mouth of the cave, and post some men there to guard it.

    

"But don't stop! Pursue your enemies, attack them from the rear and don't let them reach their cities, for the LORD your God has given them into your hand." So Joshua and the Israelites destroyed them completely--almost to a man--but the few who were left reached their fortified cities.

Most of the Amorites are "destroyed" (or "fully devoted") but some escape to their fortified cities. Regardless, the Israelites have won this war.

Joshua 10:21-27, Joshua kills five kings

The whole army then returned safely to Joshua in the camp at Makkedah, and no one uttered a word against the Israelites. Joshua said, "Open the mouth of the cave and bring those five kings out to me."

    

So they brought the five kings out of the cave--the kings of Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish and Eglon. When they had brought these kings to Joshua, he summoned all the men of Israel and said to the army commanders who had come with him, "Come here and put your feet on the necks of these kings." So they came forward and placed their feet on their necks.

     

Joshua said to them, "Do not be afraid; do not be discouraged. Be strong and courageous. This is what the LORD will do to all the enemies you are going to fight." Then Joshua struck and killed the kings and hung them on five trees, and they were left hanging on the trees until evening.

    

At sunset Joshua gave the order and they took them down from the trees and threw them into the cave where they had been hiding. At the mouth of the cave they placed large rocks, which are there to this day.

The kings are captured and executed by Joshua. After their deaths, the bodies of the kings are hung on trees for the day before they are buried. As prescribed in Deuteronomy 21:22-23, the bodies of the executed are to be taken down before evening.

Joshua 10:28-39, Other cites

That day Joshua took Makkedah. He put the city and its king to the sword and totally destroyed everyone in it. He left no survivors. And he did to the king of Makkedah as he had done to the king of Jericho.

    

Then Joshua and all Israel with him moved on from Makkedah to Libnah and attacked it. The LORD also gave that city and its king into Israel's hand. The city and everyone in it Joshua put to the sword. He left no survivors there. And he did to its king as he had done to the king of Jericho.

    

Then Joshua and all Israel with him moved on from Libnah to Lachish; he took up positions against it and attacked it. The LORD handed Lachish over to Israel, and Joshua took it on the second day. The city and everyone in it he put to the sword, just as he had done to Libnah.  

    

Meanwhile, Horam king of Gezer had come up to help Lachish, but Joshua defeated him and his army--until no survivors were left.

    

Then Joshua and all Israel with him moved on from Lachish to Eglon; they took up positions against it and attacked it. They captured it that same day and put it to the sword and totally destroyed everyone in it, just as they had done to Lachish.

    

Then Joshua and all Israel with him went up from Eglon to Hebron and attacked it. They took the city and put it to the sword, together with its king, its villages and everyone in it. They left no survivors. Just as at Eglon, they totally destroyed it and everyone in it.

    

Then Joshua and all Israel with him turned around and attacked Debir. They took the city, its king and its villages, and put them to the sword. Everyone in it they totally destroyed. They left no survivors. They did to Debir and its king as they had done to Libnah and its king and to Hebron.

Makkedah, Libnah, Lachish, Gezer, Eglon, Hebron, Debir,...   all fall to the Israelites, as the nation spreads over the land. This short passage probably summarizes years, maybe decades, of warfare. We see that Makkedah and Libnah are treated as Jericho, Lachish is treated "as Libnah", Eglon as Lachish, Hebron as Eglon. Finally Debir is treated "as Libnah ... and Hebron."  At least one city falls in one day; Lachish takes two days.

Other defeated kings will form a list in chapter 12 as the author quickly wraps up the history of the conquest and moves on to the distribution of the lands.

Joshua 10:40-43, Complete victory

So Joshua subdued the whole region, including the hill country, the Negev, the western foothills and the mountain slopes, together with all their kings. He left no survivors. He totally destroyed all who breathed, just as the LORD, the God of Israel, had commanded.

Joshua subdued them from Kadesh Barnea to Gaza and from the whole region of Goshen to Gibeon. All these kings and their lands Joshua conquered in one campaign, because the LORD, the God of Israel, fought for Israel.

Then Joshua returned with all Israel to the camp at Gilgal.

This passage summarizes the chapter: Joshua and his people have conquered the land of southern Canaan.

First published June 6, 2023; updated June 5, 2026

Joshua 9, Treaty with Gibeon

The Israelites have conquered Jericho and Ai and (possibly) other towns.

Joshua 9:1-2, An alliance against Israel

Now when all the kings west of the Jordan heard about these things--those in the hill country, in the western foothills, and along the entire coast of the Great Sea as far as Lebanon (the kings of the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites)-- they came together to make war against Joshua and Israel.

(The Great Sea is the Mediterranean Sea.) The kings between the Jordan and the Mediterranean are worried about these invaders and so form an alliance to fight this new threat, the people of Israel. Hubbard says these tribes are from Jerusalem and areas further south and west.

Joshua 9:3-8a, The Gibeonites

However, when the people of Gibeon heard what Joshua had done to Jericho and Ai, they resorted to a ruse: They went as a delegation whose donkeys were loaded with worn-out sacks and old wineskins, cracked and mended. The men put worn and patched sandals on their feet and wore old clothes. All the bread of their food supply was dry and moldy.

    

Then they went to Joshua in the camp at Gilgal and said to him and the men of Israel, "We have come from a distant country; make a treaty with us." The men of Israel said to the Hivites, "But perhaps you live near us. How then can we make a treaty with you?"

    

"We are your servants," they said to Joshua. 

The Gibeonites are more cautious and subtle. They know they are likely to get a peace treaty if they are not viewed as a nearby tribe and so they fake their identification, hoping that a peace treaty is a treaty, even if some deception was used to gain it.

Joshua 9:8b-13, We are from far away

But Joshua asked, "Who are you and where do you come from?"

    

They answered: "Your servants have come from a very distant country because of the fame of the LORD your God. For we have heard reports of him: all that he did in Egypt, and all that he did to the two kings of the Amorites east of the Jordan--Sihon king of Heshbon, and Og king of Bashan, who reigned in Ashtaroth. 

    

"And our elders and all those living in our country said to us, `Take provisions for your journey; go and meet them and say to them, "We are your servants; make a treaty with us."' This bread of ours was warm when we packed it at home on the day we left to come to you. But now see how dry and moldy it is. And these wineskins that we filled were new, but see how cracked they are. And our clothes and sandals are worn out by the very long journey."

Joshua is suspicious and presses the Gibeonites on their story. The Gibeonites emphasize the fear that has spread by the actions of the God of Israel. They push their ruse of long weary travel, pointing to old bread and clothes.

Joshua 9:14-21, Treaty

The men of Israel sampled their provisions but did not inquire of the LORD. Then Joshua made a treaty of peace with them to let them live, and the leaders of the assembly ratified it by oath.

Three days after they made the treaty with the Gibeonites, the Israelites heard that they were neighbors, living near them. So the Israelites set out and on the third day came to their cities: Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth and Kiriath Jearim. But the Israelites did not attack them, because the leaders of the assembly had sworn an oath to them by the LORD, the God of Israel. The whole assembly grumbled against the leaders, but all the leaders answered, "We have given them our oath by the LORD, the God of Israel, and we cannot touch them now.  This is what we will do to them: We will let them live, so that wrath will not fall on us for breaking the oath we swore to them."
    

They continued, "Let them live, but let them be woodcutters and water carriers for the entire community." So the leaders' promise to them was kept.

Verse 14 implies that had the men of Israel inquired of YHWH, the ruse would have been revealed. The possible outcome of that inquiry is not clear.

The Gibeonite ruse allows them to be absorbed into Israel, but as servants. Later, in the settlement of Canaan, the town of Gibeon will be a refugee city for the Benjamites (see Joshua 21:13-18.) 

Joshua 9:22-27, Treaty confirmed ... and a curse.

Then Joshua summoned the Gibeonites and said, "Why did you deceive us by saying, `We live a long way from you,' while actually you live near us? You are now under a curse: You will never cease to serve as woodcutters and water carriers for the house of my God."

They answered Joshua, "Your servants were clearly told how the LORD your God had commanded his servant Moses to give you the whole land and to wipe out all its inhabitants from before you. So we feared for our lives because of you, and that is why we did this. We are now in your hands. Do to us whatever seems good and right to you."

    

So Joshua saved them from the Israelites, and they did not kill them. That day he made the Gibeonites woodcutters and water carriers for the community and for the altar of the LORD at the place the LORD would choose. And that is what they are to this day.

This passage repeats the earlier story, this time as a conversation involving Joshua. The Gibeonites become part of Israel, in a servile role. The text implies this is to always be true.

Do we hear of the Gibeonites later? Centuries later, King Saul will attempt to annihilate the Gibeonites and David then offers restitution to that tribe by allowing the Gibeonites to kill seven sons of Saul. Although Saul's attack on the Gibeonites is not recorded in scripture, the lurid episode in which David turns over seven sons of Saul is described in II Samuel 21:1-9.

There is a brief allusion here to an altar "at the place YHWH would choose". Just as Israel must follow the only One God, there will be one central place for all the people to worship. The tabernacle will move (says Madvig) from Shechem to Shiloh to Gibeon and eventually Jerusalem, where Solomon will build the permanent temple.

First published June 5, 2023; updated June 4, 2026