Exodus 21, On Servants and Property

YHWH has given the Israelites the Ten Commandments. There are then follow-up instructions that set some basic standards of conduct for this new nation.

Exodus 21:1-6, On treating servants

"These are the laws you are to set before them: If you buy a Hebrew servant, he is to serve you for six years. But in the seventh year, he shall go free, without paying anything. If he comes alone, he is to go free alone; but if he has a wife when he comes, she is to go with him.  If his master gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the woman and her children shall belong to her master, and only the man shall go free.    

"But if the servant declares, `I love my master and my wife and children and do not want to go free,' then his master must take him before the judges. He shall take him to the door or the doorpost and pierce his ear with an awl. Then he will be his servant for life.

This passage is very strange to modern ears. The word translated "servant" is ebed (עֶבֶד.) Since there were laws against kidnapping and slave trading (see verse 16 below) then these people are indentured servants, people who, presumably, because of poverty, have asked to enter this service out of desperation. (A parallel passage in Deuteronomy 15: 12-15 makes this clear as it alludes to people selling themselves as servants.)

There seems to be no opposition to this indentured servanthood but instead control over its use. If a society allows indentured servants, then these passages apply some type of protection for them; the slaves/servants should be allowed to go free on a Sabbath year.

The restrictions about a wife given by the master may simply indicate that a female indentured servant did not get out of her contract by marrying another servant.

In verse 6, the Hebrew word translated "judges" by the NIV is elohim (אֱלהִים) which usually is translated as "God" or "gods." The NIV is making a judgment call here, based on context, and admits in a marginal note that the phrase "before the judges" could be "before God."

Exodus 21:7-11, On female servants

"If a man sells his daughter as a servant, she is not to go free as menservants do.

    

If she does not please the master who has selected her for himself, he must let her be redeemed. He has no right to sell her to foreigners, because he has broken faith with her. If he selects her for his son, he must grant her the rights of a daughter. If he marries another woman, he must not deprive the first one of her food, clothing and marital rights. If he does not provide her with these three things, she is to go free, without any payment of money.

Here "servant" is a translation of a different Hebrew word, amah (אָמָה.) This is often translated "maid" or "handmaid." This paragraph concentrates on the use/abuse of female servants.  It is not clear what "selection" of the servant means but it may mean marriage or a status as a concubine?

Exodus 21:12-14, On murder and manslaughter

"Anyone who strikes a man and kills him shall surely be put to death. However, if he does not do it intentionally, but God lets it happen, he is to flee to a place I will designate. But if a man schemes and kills another man deliberately, take him away from my altar and put him to death.

Murder and manslaughter are separated. The one who commits manslaughter has a refuge at "the altar".  The one who commits murder does not. (This concept will be described in further detail in Deuteronomy 19;1-13.)

Exodus 21:15-17, Attacking, kidnapping, cursing....

"Anyone who attacks his father or his mother must be put to death.

    

"Anyone who kidnaps another and either sells him or still has him when he is caught must be put to death.

    

"Anyone who curses his father or mother must be put to death.

Cursing one's parents also carries a death penalty! (It violates the fifth commandment.) But the statement about "attacking" one's parents in verse 15 is unclear. The Hebrew word nakah (נָכָה), translated by the NIV as "attacks", can also mean "kills."

In this new nation, kidnapping a person or trading in humans carries a death penalty. This then prohibits the capture of people as slaves and prohibits slave trading. In combination with the earlier text, the entry of one into the role of slave or indentured servant is presumably initiated by the slave, out of desperation.

Exodus 21:18-21, Assault and manslaughter

"If men quarrel and one hits the other with a stone or with his fist and he does not die but is confined to bed, the one who struck the blow will not be held responsible if the other gets up and walks around outside with his staff; however, he must pay the injured man for the loss of his time and see that he is completely healed.

    

"If a man beats his male or female slave with a rod and the slave dies as a direct result, he must be punished, but he is not to be punished if the slave gets up after a day or two, since the slave is his property.

Slaves are "property"!  According to the NIV Theological Study Bible, the word translated "property" here is more commonly translated "silver". Imes argues that this is best translated "since the slave is his loss."

Exodus 21:22-25, Hitting a pregnant woman

"If men who are fighting hit a pregnant woman and she gives birth prematurely but there is no serious injury, the offender must be fined whatever the woman's husband demands and the court allows. But if there is serious injury, you are to take life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, bruise for bruise.

(NIV footnotes: "gives birth prematurely" (verse 22) could mean a miscarriage.)

This passage seems to set up an "equal replacement" form of justice where the violent person is to suffer as the victim suffered. Of emphasis, presumably, is that this applies to all people, irrespective of their wealth or power.

Exodus 21:26-27, Maiming a servant

"If a man hits a manservant or maidservant in the eye and destroys it, he must let the servant go free to compensate for the eye. And if he knocks out the tooth of a manservant or maidservant, he must let the servant go free to compensate for the tooth.

If one strikes a servant and hurts him/her, one must free the servant.

Exodus 21:28-32, Death by Property

"If a bull gores a man or a woman to death, the bull must be stoned to death, and its meat must not be eaten. But the owner of the bull will not be held responsible.

     

If, however, the bull has had the habit of goring and the owner has been warned but has not kept it penned up and it kills a man or woman, the bull must be stoned and the owner also must be put to death.

    

However, if payment is demanded of him, he may redeem his life by paying whatever is demanded.

    

This law also applies if the bull gores a son or daughter. If the bull gores a male or female slave, the owner must pay thirty shekels of silver to the master of the slave, and the bull must be stoned.

The passage distinguishes between the killing by an animal and the killing by an animal known to be dangerous.

(NIV footnotes: Thirty shekels, verse 32, is about 12 ounces of silver.) The exact value of this fine implies that these laws are intended for a particular culture and time.

Exodus 21:33-36, Accidental loss

"If a man uncovers a pit or digs one and fails to cover it and an ox or a donkey falls into it, the owner of the pit must pay for the loss; he must pay its owner, and the dead animal will be his.

    

"If a man's bull injures the bull of another and it dies, they are to sell the live one and divide both the money and the dead animal equally. However, if it was known that the bull had the habit of goring, yet the owner did not keep it penned up, the owner must pay, animal for animal, and the dead animal will be his.

Various accidental damages are covered here.

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First published March 24, 2023; updated March 24, 2026

Exodus 20, The Ten Words

The Israelites are camped at Mt. Sinai. God has a Covenant code for the people of Israel. This code begins by emphasizing the particular role of YHWH as their God. It then goes on to describe how His people should live out that special position as a nation in the Ancient Near East. 

The beginning of this code has the Decalogue, that is, the Ten Words. Our modern term for this is the "Ten Commandments".

Exodus 20:1-7, Only one God!

And God spoke all these words: "I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of Egypt, out of the land of slavery. You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself an idol in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God, punishing the children for the sin of the fathers to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing love to a thousand [generations] of those who love me and keep my commandments.

    

"You shall not misuse the name of the LORD your God, for the LORD will not hold anyone guiltless who misuses his name.

Those who follow YHWH agree that YHWH is first among all divine beings. Only YHWH, the Creator of Genesis 1, is worthy of worship. Do not play with other gods; do not consider other divinities.

We might observe that these commandments are not numbered.  The paragraph above comes across as a single commandment although it is commonly broken up into three.

Imes, in her class on Exodus, argues that verse 7, often translated, "You shall not take the name of the LORD in vain..." most likely describes how the Israelites, as God's people, under His Name, are to model Him. When they are (figuratively) tattooed with His name on their foreheads and sleeves and walk among the other nations, people should look at them at say, "They have a great God!" Their actions should not drag YHWH's name into the dirt. This concept -- how the Israelites actions praise or abuse the name (reputation) of YHWH -- will be repeated throughout the Old Testament and will be particularly clear in the prophetical books.

We are not to misrepresent YHWH.  That is a strong statement.

The cosmological viewpoint of the ancient Near East comes out in verse 4, above, in which the Israelites are to make no images of anything in heaven above or the earth beneath or the waters below the earth. (I will say more about this cosmology at some other time.)

These first two/three commandments, on putting YHWH first, are followed in the next verses by a transitional commandment, one in which our worship of YHWH translates into a concrete social practice.

Exodus 20:8-11, Set aside the Sabbath

"Remember the Sabbath day by keeping it holy. Six days you shall labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the LORD your God. On it you shall not do any work, neither you, nor your son or daughter, nor your manservant or maidservant, nor your animals, nor the alien within your gates.    

    

For in six days the LORD made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but he rested on the seventh day. Therefore the LORD blessed the Sabbath day and made it holy.

The seventh day of the week is set aside for worship and to refrain from labor. That seventh day emphasizes one's covenant relation with the God of Creation and breaks up the tedious, earthly demands on life. The Sabbath Rest also emphasizes the completeness and purposefulness of God's creative acts.

If we are committed to representing YHWH and His Name, then this should show up in how we treat our neighbors. The next commandments will deal with our interactions with the people around us.

Exodus 20:12, Honor your parents

"Honor your father and your mother, so that you may live long in the land the LORD your God is giving you.

 

This is an interesting commandment. Even in the patriarchal society of the day, both husband and wife are given equal billing here. The word "honor" here is much deeper and more complex than mere obedience.  The Hebrew word for "honor" (kaw-bad') is the same word used to describe Pharaoh's heart in Exodus 8:15. There the word is usually translated "hardened". The best interpretation of kaw-bad is to be heavy; Pharaoh made his heart heavy and unyielding but we are to treat our parents as "heavy", that is, royal and valuable.

If one pays attention to one's parents and values them, then in general, on average, one's lifespan should be longer than otherwise!

Exodus 20:13, Murder   

"You shall not murder.

    

This commandment, in other places, is expanded to be a prohibition against acting violently out of hatred towards another.

Exodus 20:14, Adultery   

"You shall not commit adultery.

    

To adulterate something is to water it down. Sex with someone other than one's spouse waters down and weakens that important bond. In the shadows of Creation, sex is given as a good thing that bonds husband and wife together (Genesis 2: 23-25), creates order and fruitfulness within the Covenant plans for Israel.

Later prophets will use "adultery" as a metaphor for idolatry, as people turn from their covenant with YHWH to worship other gods.

Exodus 20:15, Theft  

"You shall not steal.

    

Theft is a crime in every society, but as Deuteronomy expands on these commandments, we will see that there are all sorts of ways one might "steal" from another, see for example Deuteronomy 25:13-16 where deception and fraud are identified.

Exodus 20:16, Lying    

"You shall not give false testimony against your neighbor.

    

Lying about a neighbor destroys their reputation and is a type of theft, whether in the courts or more casually. Like the other commandments, this is expanded on in Deuteronomy. In New Testament times, Christians were told not to gossip or slander others (see, for example, Paul's concerns about the church in Corinth in 2 Corinthians 12:20). Gossip can be a casual form of false testimony. In my culture and time, gossip and "giving false witness" is pandemic on social media, as I, and my Facebook friends, casually pass on falsehood with a click of a mouse.

Exodus 20:17, Covetousness  

"You shall not covet your neighbor's house. You shall not covet your neighbor's wife, or his manservant or maidservant, his ox or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor."

This last commandment might be thought of as a summary of the past four. Covetousness is an internal heart issue, not easily detectible by others. But covetous thoughts lead to hatred, theft, adultery and lying. 

These commandments will be expanded in various ways throughout the rest of the Torah, especially in the book of Deuteronomy.

Exodus 20:18-21, Thunder, lightning and thick darkness

When the people saw the thunder and lightning and heard the trumpet and saw the mountain in smoke, they trembled with fear. They stayed at a distance and said to Moses, "Speak to us yourself and we will listen. But do not have God speak to us or we will die."

    

Moses said to the people, "Do not be afraid. God has come to test you, so that the fear of God will be with you to keep you from sinning."

    

The people remained at a distance, while Moses approached the thick darkness where God was.

The One who controls the weather makes it clear to the people His power.

Exodus 20:22-26, Reminder, NO OTHER GODS

Then the LORD said to Moses, "Tell the Israelites this: `You have seen for yourselves that I have spoken to you from heaven: Do not make any gods to be alongside me; do not make for yourselves gods of silver or gods of gold.

    

"`Make an altar of earth for me and sacrifice on it your burnt offerings and fellowship offerings, your sheep and goats and your cattle. Wherever I cause my name to be honored, I will come to you and bless you. 

If you make an altar of stones for me, do not build it with dressed stones, for you will defile it if you use a tool on it. And do not go up to my altar on steps, lest your nakedness be exposed on it.'

Again, there are no other gods, no one is close to being as almighty and holy as YHWH. As in verse 7, there is an emphasis on the honor of YHWH's name.

There are a number of restrictions on not defiling the altar, including not allowing one's "nakedness" to be exposed to it! The altar must be treated with respect.

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First published March 23, 2023; updated March 23, 2026

Review of an Exodus Commentary by Terence Fretheim

The first half of the book of Exodus is a strange and exciting mixture of dramatic events, a brief expositions about Jewish feasts and a praise song by Moses after the people of Israel are rescued on the Sinai peninsula.  The second half is not as fast-paced; for me it seems to bog down in intricate details of the Jewish Law, given on Mount Sinai (twice!)  I have found the study of that material a bit of a struggle.  However, I have been greatly helped by both the Exodus class by Carmen Imes and the commentary on Exodus by Terence Fretheim.

Fretheim's study in Exodus (Exodus: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching, John Knox Press, Louisville KY, 1991) is an exciting and detailed commentary on

an Old Testament book that I have generally found strange and tedious. Fretheim works through the ancient story of Moses with insight into passages that hint at God's plan to reveal himself, first to Moses, then to the Egyptian Pharaoh, and finally, in covenant, to the Israelite people on the plain before Mt. Sinai. Fretheim's analysis of Exodus 32-34 is especially enlightening, indeed inspiring, as Moses negotiates with YHWH, mediating for the people of Israel. When YHWH asks if He should start all over with just Moses (as He did with Noah), Moses responds by repeating back YHWH's statements about His reputation and plans for the nation and all mankind. The interaction is remarkable in ways I had never seen before. Can I make the same pleas to YHWH? Isn't that the point of intercessory prayer?

My previous experience with the book of Exodus has tended to be a watered down Vacation-Bible-School version. Fretheim makes it clear that instead this ancient text is a central, critical book for the nation of Israel and thus for both Jews and Christians. The book has deep theological statements about knowing God and interacting with Him and His Law. Fretheim points out numerous places, both in the conflict with Pharaoh and the later events at Mt. Sinai, where the Exodus text points back to Creation, eventually offering, in some sense, a way for the people of Israel to experience the original promises of Eden.

Fretheim, although orthodox and committed to Scripture as divinely inspired, does see parts of Exodus as organized by redactors, in a way that I interpret as a modification of a modification of the Document Hypothesis.

When I first began this blog, I spent a month carefully studying the book of Exodus, watching a BibleProject course by Carmen Imes and reading this commentary (which was recommended by Imes.) I have benefitted greatly from both my time in the course and my time in the commentary.

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First published March 26, 2023; updated March 22, 2026

Exodus 19, Mount Sinai

The Israelites continue their desert sojourn.

Exodus 19:1-2, Camping in the Sinai desert

In the third month after the Israelites left Egypt--on the very day--they came to the Desert of Sinai. After they set out from Rephidim, they entered the Desert of Sinai, and Israel camped there in the desert in front of the mountain.

After two months, the nation comes to Mount Sinai.  (The Jewish calendar began anew with the Exodus.) This is the same mountain where Moses saw the burning bush in Exodus 3. Here it is given a different name but once again, God will suddenly be physically present; YHWH will provide a physical manifestation of His nearness.

Earlier (Exodus 3:1) this region and its mountain is named Horeb. Why the name change? See this article by Imes for one explanation. The Hebrew word for bush is seneh ( סְנֶה.) The location of the burning bush is in a desert (with a mountain) named Sinai (סִינַי.) It is possible that the word Sinai was a new name derived from the burning bush incident.

Exodus 19:3-6, God's covenant offered to the people of Israel

Then Moses went up to God, and the LORD called to him from the mountain and said, "This is what you are to say to the house of Jacob and what you are to tell the people of Israel: `You yourselves have seen what I did to Egypt, and how I carried you on eagles' wings and brought you to myself. Now if you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of all nations you will be my treasured possession. Although the whole earth is mine, you will be for me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.' These are the words you are to speak to the Israelites."

 

Israel, is "carried on eagles' wings" by YHWH, protected by a powerful predator. The image of eagle wings protecting Israel occurs again in Deuteronomy 32:9-12. Protected by this eagle, Israel is set aside as a "particular people", a "treasured possession." 

Exodus 19:7-8, The people respond

So Moses went back and summoned the elders of the people and set before them all the words the LORD had commanded him to speak.

    

The people all responded together, "We will do everything the LORD has said." So Moses brought their answer back to the LORD.

At this time the Israelites have confirmed their enthusiasm for having YHWH as their God and King. They commit to a covenant relationship.

Exodus 19:9-13, Israel to be consecrated to God

The LORD said to Moses, "I am going to come to you in a dense cloud, so that the people will hear me speaking with you and will always put their trust in you." Then Moses told the LORD what the people had said.

    

And the LORD said to Moses, "Go to the people and consecrate them today and tomorrow. Have them wash their clothes and be ready by the third day, because on that day the LORD will come down on Mount Sinai in the sight of all the people. Put limits for the people around the mountain and tell them, `Be careful that you do not go up the mountain or touch the foot of it. Whoever touches the mountain shall surely be put to death. He shall surely be stoned or shot with arrows; not a hand is to be laid on him. Whether man or animal, he shall not be permitted to live.' Only when the ram's horn sounds a long blast may they go up to the mountain."

The Israelites prepare to welcome their King.  He will be physically apparent in a dense cloud. 

But be careful! Nearness to God means death; in this case the death will be carried out by the people.

Exodus 19:14-19, Mt. Sinai covered with smoke

After Moses had gone down the mountain to the people, he consecrated them, and they washed their clothes. Then he said to the people, "Prepare yourselves for the third day. Abstain from sexual relations." 

    

On the morning of the third day there was thunder and lightning, with a thick cloud over the mountain, and a very loud trumpet blast. Everyone in the camp trembled. Then Moses led the people out of the camp to meet with God, and they stood at the foot of the mountain.    

    

Mount Sinai was covered with smoke, because the LORD descended on it in fire. The smoke billowed up from it like smoke from a furnace, the whole mountain trembled violently, and the sound of the trumpet grew louder and louder. Then Moses spoke and the voice of God answered him.

NIV footnotes point out differences in ancient manuscripts: In verse 18, most Hebrew manuscripts say "the whole mountain trembled" but a few Hebrew manuscripts and Septuagint say "all the people trembled". In verse 19 the final phrase could be "and God answered him with thunder." Regardless, we feel the terrifying volcano-like explosions of fire and thunder. The visible presence of God on the mountain is a frightening thing.

I'm not sure why the instruction "abstain from sexual relations" is there -- maybe sex would be a distraction to a day consecrated only to God? Or, more likely, in the ANE culture, sex was associated with reproduction, which was then associated with human mortality. 

Exodus 19:20-25, Moses called to the top of the mountain

The LORD descended to the top of Mount Sinai and called Moses to the top of the mountain. So Moses went up and the LORD said to him, "Go down and warn the people so they do not force their way through to see the LORD and many of them perish. Even the priests, who approach the LORD, must consecrate themselves, or the LORD will break out against them."

    

Moses said to the LORD, "The people cannot come up Mount Sinai, because you yourself warned us, `Put limits around the mountain and set it apart as holy.'"

    

The LORD replied, "Go down and bring Aaron up with you. But the priests and the people must not force their way through to come up to the LORD, or he will break out against them."

    

So Moses went down to the people and told them.

Once again, all the people are warned away from God and the mountain.  We note that to meet at the top of the mountain, YHWH comes down while Moses goes up.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is dabar,

דָבָר

a masculine noun meaning "word" or "speech" or "command", appearing in verse 6 in the plural, for the words that God spoke to Moses.

Some Random Thoughts

Ime's, in her class on Exodus, focuses on the phrase "treasured possession." It is the Hebrew word segulla (סְגֻלָּה), appearing eight times in the Old Testament. It means a special treasure, maybe a favorite piece of jewelry. But in the Old Testament it almost always appears as a description, by YHWH, of His special covenant people. In the Septuagint it is translated as the Greek peripoiesis  (περιποίησις) and is used in the New Testament in I Peter 2:9 to describe the followers of Messiah Yeshua (Jesus.)

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First published March 22, 2023; updated March 21, 2026

Exodus 18, Advice from a Father-in-Law

Of the various roles Moses fulfills, as leader of his people, one role is to administer justice.  If there are 600,000 men (or even 600 clans), this is a significant role.

Exodus 18:1-4, Jethro, priest of Midian, hears of Moses' victory

Now Jethro, the priest of Midian and father-in-law of Moses, heard of everything God had done for Moses and for his people Israel, and how the LORD had brought Israel out of Egypt. After Moses had sent away his wife Zipporah, his father-in-law Jethro received her and her two sons. One son was named Gershom, for Moses said, "I have become an alien in a foreign land"; and the other was named Eliezer, for he said, "My father's God was my helper; he saved me from the sword of Pharaoh."

The Hebrew ger (גֵּר) means "sojourner", "stranger" and so  "Gershom" sounds like the Hebrew for "an alien there" (says the NIV.) The word Eliezer means "God helps" or "God is my helper."

Apparently Moses sent away his wife and sons before Moses visited Pharaoh?

Exodus 18:5-8, Moses reunited with wife and sons

Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, together with Moses' sons and wife, came to him in the desert, where he was camped near the mountain of God. Jethro had sent word to him, "I, your father-in-law Jethro, am coming to you with your wife and her two sons."    

    

So Moses went out to meet his father-in-law and bowed down and kissed him. They greeted each other and then went into the tent. Moses told his father-in-law about everything the LORD had done to Pharaoh and the Egyptians for Israel's sake and about all the hardships they had met along the way and how the LORD had saved them.

Near "the mountain of God" (see the next chapter) Jethro, along with Moses's wife and sons, catch up with Moses and the Israelites. Moses updates Jethro on all that has happened since Moses went off to Egypt.

The relationship between Moses and Jethro seems to be friendly and supportive. Alter points out that traveling to "the mountain of God" occurs in the next chapter; it is not uncommon in Old Testament passages for events to be out of chronological order.

Exodus 18:9-12, Support from Jethro

Jethro was delighted to hear about all the good things the LORD had done for Israel in rescuing them from the hand of the Egyptians. He said, "Praise be to the LORD, who rescued you from the hand of the Egyptians and of Pharaoh, and who rescued the people from the hand of the Egyptians. Now I know that the LORD is greater than all other gods, for he did this to those who had treated Israel arrogantly."

    

Then Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, brought a burnt offering and other sacrifices to God, and Aaron came with all the elders of Israel to eat bread with Moses' father-in-law in the presence of God.

Like the Egyptians and others of this day, YHWH is recognized as better than the "other gods". Jethro has heard of the things YHWH has done for the people of Israel and publicly recognizes that YHWH is king of all gods. (This statement is different from monotheism, the belief that there is only one God.)

Exodus 18:13-16, Moses wearied by decision-making

The next day Moses took his seat to serve as judge for the people, and they stood around him from morning till evening. When his father-in-law saw all that Moses was doing for the people, he said, "What is this you are doing for the people? Why do you alone sit as judge, while all these people stand around you from morning till evening?"

    

Moses answered him, "Because the people come to me to seek God's will. Whenever they have a dispute, it is brought to me, and I decide between the parties and inform them of God's decrees and laws."

Jethro has some experience and advice. He is shocked that Moses is taking all the work on himself.

Exodus 18:17-23, Jethro has wise advice

Moses' father-in-law replied, "What you are doing is not good. You and these people who come to you will only wear yourselves out. The work is too heavy for you; you cannot handle it alone. Listen now to me and I will give you some advice, and may God be with you. You must be the people's representative before God and bring their disputes to him. Teach them the decrees and laws, and show them the way to live and the duties they are to perform.

    

But select capable men from all the people--men who fear God, trustworthy men who hate dishonest gain--and appoint them as officials over thousands, hundreds, fifties and tens. Have them serve as judges for the people at all times, but have them bring every difficult case to you; the simple cases they can decide themselves. That will make your load lighter, because they will share it with you. 

    

If you do this and God so commands, you will be able to stand the strain, and all these people will go home satisfied."

Jethro suggests some basic delegation of responsibilities.

Exodus 18:24-27, Leaders chosen

Moses listened to his father-in-law and did everything he said. He chose capable men from all Israel and made them leaders of the people, officials over thousands, hundreds, fifties and tens. They served as judges for the people at all times. The difficult cases they brought to Moses, but the simple ones they decided themselves.

    

Then Moses sent his father-in-law on his way, and Jethro returned to his own country.

Moses agrees. Although the suggestions are fairly simple, it is likely that in this intervention Jethro forces Moses to step back and agree to a more general approach to dispensing justice.

Then Jethro (and Zipporah and sons?) return to Jethro's home in Midian.  Note that the aid of this Midianite, at the birth of the nation of Israel, is recorded here. A later story, the story of Ruth, will acknowledge the value of a woman from Moab. A number of heroes of the Old Testament will be from outside Israel!

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is ezer,

עֵזֶר

a masculine noun meaning "help". The name Eliezer (אֱלִיעֶזֶר), for a son of Moses, combines that word with el (אֵל, "god") and so means "God helps."

Some Random Thoughts

This chapter is a strange interlude in the story of the exodus from Egypt. Why is it here?  I suspect that the events in this chapter prepare us for the lengthy smaller decrees we will read after the Ten Commandments are given. Before the Ten Commandments (coming in chapter 20), Moses makes all judicial decisions, presumably after consultation with YHWH. But after the Ten Commandments, a set of smaller decrees flesh out how those "Ten Words" apply to the people. Embedded in the smaller laws are instructions on how judges are to rule, describing a judicial system that allows decisions at a local level. 

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First published March 21, 2023; updated March 20, 2026

Exodus 17, Massah and Meribah

God has provided the Israelites with manna and quail. They continue their journey eastward into the Sinai desert.

Exodus 17:1-3, Thirsty

The whole Israelite community set out from the Desert of Sin, traveling from place to place as the LORD commanded. They camped at Rephidim, but there was no water for the people to drink.

    

So they quarreled with Moses and said, "Give us water to drink." 

Moses replied, "Why do you quarrel with me? Why do you put the LORD to the test?"

    

But the people were thirsty for water there, and they grumbled against Moses. They said, "Why did you bring us up out of Egypt to make us and our children and livestock die of thirst?"

At a place in the desert called Rephidim, there is no water. Once again the people complain, in the same way that they complained earlier: "Egypt was better! You brought us out here to kill us!"

What does it mean to "put YHWH to the test"?  Fretheim argues that (in modern terms) this is using YHWH as a "vending machine", demanding that He put out gifts upon request.

Exodus 17:4-7, Massah and Meribah

Then Moses cried out to the LORD, "What am I to do with these people? They are almost ready to stone me."

    

The LORD answered Moses, "Walk on ahead of the people. Take with you some of the elders of Israel and take in your hand the staff with which you struck the Nile, and go.  I will stand there before you by the rock at Horeb.  Strike the rock, and water will come out of it for the people to drink." 

So Moses did this in the sight of the elders of Israel.

     

And he called the place Massah and Meribah because the Israelites quarreled and because they tested the LORD saying, "Is the LORD among us or not?"

Once again, God will provide a solution.  But Moses is weary of the grumbling. Moses "strikes" the rock with his staff, just as he, earlier, struck the Nile. This time there is a good result.

The Hebrew massah (מַסָּה) means "a test" or "a trial". The Hebrew word "meribah" (מְרִיבָה) is a noun meaning "provocation", "strife", "quarreling."

Exodus 17:8-13, Battle with the Amalekites

The Amalekites came and attacked the Israelites at Rephidim. Moses said to Joshua, "Choose some of our men and go out to fight the Amalekites. Tomorrow I will stand on top of the hill with the staff of God in my hands."

    

So Joshua fought the Amalekites as Moses had ordered, and Moses, Aaron and Hur went to the top of the hill. As long as Moses held up his hands, the Israelites were winning, but whenever he lowered his hands, the Amalekites were winning. When Moses' hands grew tired, they took a stone and put it under him and he sat on it. Aaron and Hur held his hands up--one on one side, one on the other--so that his hands remained steady till sunset.

    

So Joshua overcame the Amalekite army with the sword.

And now there is a battle with the Amalekites. This is the first battle in the wilderness. To emphasize that it is really God acting through the Israelites, we see that whenever Moses holds up his hands (to worship? to ask for help?) the Israelites are successful but when he tires and drops his hands, they begin to lose.  Aaron and Hur comes to Moses's aid and help him hold up his hands. Fretheim suggests that the easiest interpretation of the necessity of Moses to hold up his hand is that this gives the army below a visible sign that YHWH, through Moses, is in charge -- that the staff of Moses represents the hand of YHWH.

This is the first mention of Joshua. Here he leads the army against the Amalekites. He will reappear in as an assistant to Moses in chapters 24 and 32 of Exodus.

Exodus 17:14-16, Amalekites draw God's wrath

Then the LORD said to Moses, "Write this on a scroll as something to be remembered and make sure that Joshua hears it, because I will completely blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven."

    

Moses built an altar and called it The LORD is my Banner. He said, "For hands were lifted up to the throne of the LORD. The LORD will be at war against the Amalekites from generation to generation."

The symbolism, in the hands lifted up to the throne, is an important one and is to be memorialized. The Amalekites (like the Philistines later) will be a  perpetual enemy of Israel.

The Amalekites are descendants of Esau (Genesis 36:15-16.) In 1 Samuel 15:7-9, King Saul attacks the Amelekites but spares Agag, their king. (He will get in trouble for that later.) In the book of Esther (Esther 3:1), the evil nobleman Haman will be identified as an Amalekite, a descendant of Agag.   

As Alter points out, verse 14 gives an early example of human writing. Written symbols, placed on papyrus or sheepskin, would've been rare during the time of Abraham and there is no mention of writing in the Old Testament, prior to this event.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is sepher,

סֵפֶר

a noun meaning "book", "letter", or "scroll." It appears here in verse 14, translated "scroll". Previously in the Torah, it appears once in Genesis 5:1 as the author discussed the lineage of Adam.

Some Random Thoughts

The writing in the Torah often leaves some gaps, some mysteries, that make it hard for us (or at least me) to understand. Who is upset with whom here? The people grumble to Moses and Moses grumbles to God and God then provides a quick solution in which Moses strikes the rock. But in another account of this incident (Numbers 20:1-13) Moses is chastised for losing his temper.

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First published March 20, 2023; updated March 19, 2026

Exodus 16, Quail and Manna

The Israelites have successfully left Egypt and, after singing a song of praise, have reached the oasis of Elim. (The Israelites are moving east from the Red Sea across the Sinai Peninsula.)

Exodus 16:1-5, Desert famine

The whole Israelite community set out from Elim and came to the Desert of Sin, which is between Elim and Sinai, on the fifteenth day of the second month after they had come out of Egypt.

    

In the desert the whole community grumbled against Moses and Aaron. The Israelites said to them, "If only we had died by the LORD's hand in Egypt! There we sat around pots of meat and ate all the food we wanted, but you have brought us out into this desert to starve this entire assembly to death."

    

Then the LORD said to Moses, "I will rain down bread from heaven for you. The people are to go out each day and gather enough for that day. In this way I will test them and see whether they will follow my instructions. On the sixth day they are to prepare what they bring in, and that is to be twice as much as they gather on the other days."

So quickly the Israelites forget the work and oppression in Egypt!  The desert wanderings will include many "murmurings" or "grumblings" of this type. In this case, patiently, God provides a solution. 

The Hebrew word luwn (לוּן) in verse 2 is a verb that means "to lodge" or "to dwell" or ... "to grumble." It is often used to describe one staying overnight. It first occurs in Genesis 19:2 to describe Lot's invitation to his angelic guests. It is possible that the "murmuring" meaning of the word comes from speech that is "lodging" or "dwelling" on a particular point, that is "nagging."

Exodus 16:6-9, Stop grumbling

So Moses and Aaron said to all the Israelites, "In the evening you will know that it was the LORD who brought you out of Egypt, and in the morning you will see the glory of the LORD, because he has heard your grumbling against him. Who are we, that you should grumble against us?"

    

Moses also said, "You will know that it was the LORD when he gives you meat to eat in the evening and all the bread you want in the morning, because he has heard your grumbling against him. Who are we? You are not grumbling against us, but against the LORD."

    

Then Moses told Aaron, "Say to the entire Israelite community, `Come before the LORD, for he has heard your grumbling.'"

This passage includes one of many "knowing" passages: YHWH does this so that His people will know Who brought them out of Egypt!  

Moses communicates God's plan to give them meat in the evening and bread in the morning.  (Note the Jewish order: the day begins at evening.)

Exodus 16:10-12, Glory in a cloud

While Aaron was speaking to the whole Israelite community, they looked toward the desert, and there was the glory of the LORD appearing in the cloud.

    

The LORD said to Moses, "I have heard the grumbling of the Israelites. Tell them, `At twilight you will eat meat, and in the morning you will be filled with bread. Then you will know that I am the LORD your God.'"

The Shekinah Glory of YHWH appears in a great cloud, as it did in Exodus 13:20-22.

Exodus 16:13-17, Quail and manna

That evening quail came and covered the camp, and in the morning there was a layer of dew around the camp. When the dew was gone, thin flakes like frost on the ground appeared on the desert floor.

    

When the Israelites saw it, they said to each other, "What is it?" For they did not know what it was. Moses said to them, "It is the bread the LORD has given you to eat.

    

This is what the LORD has commanded: `Each one is to gather as much as he needs. Take an omer for each person you have in your tent.'"

    

The Israelites did as they were told; some gathered much, some little.

Quail falls in the evening; a bread-ish substance is on the ground in the morning. In the seventh plague God rained hail on Egypt; this positive version of that rain is a rain of quail in the evening.  Fretheim argues in his commentary that both of these events could be explained naturally, but, as we see in a moment, the fact that this rain "rests" on the Sabbath -- as do the Israelites -- does not meet a natural explanation.

 

Exodus 16:18-20, Eat only what you need

And when they measured it by the omer, he who gathered much did not have too much, and he who gathered little did not have too little. Each one gathered as much as he needed.

    

Then Moses said to them, "No one is to keep any of it until morning."

    

However, some of them paid no attention to Moses; they kept part of it until morning, but it was full of maggots and began to smell. So Moses was angry with them.

The people are to gather just what they need.  They are not to be greedy and -- as is common for hungry people! -- hoard their food.  In this case, the hoarding does no good.

Exodus 16:21-24, Gather twice for the sabbath

Each morning everyone gathered as much as he needed, and when the sun grew hot, it melted away.

     

On the sixth day, they gathered twice as much--two omers for each person--and the leaders of the community came and reported this to Moses.

     

He said to them, "This is what the LORD commanded: `Tomorrow is to be a day of rest, a holy Sabbath to the LORD. So bake what you want to bake and boil what you want to boil. Save whatever is left and keep it until morning.'"

   

So they saved it until morning, as Moses commanded, and it did not stink or get maggots in it.

This is the first occurrence in the Old Testament of the word shabbath (שַׁבָּת), "Sabbath". The Sabbath was not specified as a special day until this chapter. Its value will be emphasized in the Mosaic Covenant, starting in chapter 20.

To emphasize the Sabbath, the people are to collect twice as much the day before and none on the Sabbath and here this double-time "hoarding" is acceptable. 

Exodus 16:25-30, Celebrating the sabbath

"Eat it today," Moses said, "because today is a Sabbath to the LORD. You will not find any of it on the ground today.

    

Six days you are to gather it, but on the seventh day, the Sabbath, there will not be any."

    

Nevertheless, some of the people went out on the seventh day to gather it, but they found none. Then the LORD said to Moses, "How long will you refuse to keep my commands and my instructions? Bear in mind that the LORD has given you the Sabbath; that is why on the sixth day he gives you bread for two days. Everyone is to stay where he is on the seventh day; no one is to go out."

    

So the people rested on the seventh day.

In verse 28 The Hebrew in "how long will you..." is plural. Moses is not the subject of YHWH's question; the people are.

Exodus 16:31-36, Remember this!

The people of Israel called the bread manna. It was white like coriander seed and tasted like wafers made with honey.

    

Moses said, "This is what the LORD has commanded: `Take an omer of manna and keep it for the generations to come, so they can see the bread I gave you to eat in the desert when I brought you out of Egypt.'"

    

So Moses said to Aaron, "Take a jar and put an omer of manna in it. Then place it before the LORD to be kept for the generations to come."

    

As the LORD commanded Moses, Aaron put the manna in front of the Testimony, that it might be kept.

    

The Israelites ate manna forty years, until they came to a land that was settled; they ate manna until they reached the border of Canaan. (An omer is one tenth of an ephah.)

 The Hebrew "manna" means "What is it"? (see verse 15). So the bread-ish food is named for the question it raises! It will feed the people until they are ready to enter the Promise Land.

Our narrator inserts an explanatory sentence about the value of an omer an explanation that is no good for those of us in the 21st-Century. An omer, we believe, was about 2 quarts.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is man,

מָן

an interrogative pronoun meaning "what?" When combined with the third person singular pronoun hu (הוּא), it becomes mān hū in verse 15, "what is it?" and thus becomes the name of this strange food.

Some Random Thoughts

There have been numerous attempts to explain the influx of quail in the evening and the growth of manna on the ground in the morning, but none of these explain why this provision might go on, day after day, skipping every seventh day. Such explanations are an attempt to insert a modern scientific viewpoint into the ancient world. The message of this chapter is that the provision of food was a miraculous, supernatural event, beyond explanation.

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First published March 18, 2023; updated March 18, 2026