I Samuel 19, The King's Jealousy

David has grown in popularity, as he successfully battles the Philistines.

1 Samuel 19:1-3, Saul recruits Jonathan and attendants

Saul told his son Jonathan and all the attendants to kill David. But Jonathan was very fond of David and warned him, "My father Saul is looking for a chance to kill you. Be on your guard tomorrow morning; go into hiding and stay there. I will go out and stand with my father in the field where you are. I'll speak to him about you and will tell you what I find out."

Saul attempts to recruit Jonathan and other attendants, but Jonathan is committed to David.

1 Samuel 19:4-6, Jonathan reasons with his father

Jonathan spoke well of David to Saul his father and said to him, "Let not the king do wrong to his servant David; he has not wronged you, and what he has done has benefited you greatly. He took his life in his hands when he killed the Philistine. The LORD won a great victory for all Israel, and you saw it and were glad. Why then would you do wrong to an innocent man like David by killing him for no reason?"

Saul listened to Jonathan and took this oath: "As surely as the LORD lives, David will not be put to death."

Jonathan convinces his father that he has no reason to be upset with David. This wins the day -- this time.

1 Samuel 19:7-10, Evil returns

So Jonathan called David and told him the whole conversation. He brought him to Saul, and David was with Saul as before.

Once more war broke out, and David went out and fought the Philistines. He struck them with such force that they fled before him. But an evil spirit from the LORD came upon Saul as he was sitting in his house with his spear in his hand. While David was playing the harp, Saul tried to pin him to the wall with his spear, but David eluded him as Saul drove the spear into the wall. That night David made good his escape.

Another victory brings another bout of jealousy. David is forced to flee.

1 Samuel 19:11-17, Michal defends David

Saul sent men to David's house to watch it and to kill him in the morning. But Michal, David's wife, warned him, "If you don't run for your life tonight, tomorrow you'll be killed." So Michal let David down through a window, and he fled and escaped.

Then Michal took an idol and laid it on the bed, covering it with a garment and putting some goats' hair at the head. When Saul sent the men to capture David, Michal said, "He is ill."

Then Saul sent the men back to see David and told them, "Bring him up to me in his bed so that I may kill him." But when the men entered, there was the idol in the bed, and at the head was some goats' hair.

Saul said to Michal, "Why did you deceive me like this and send my enemy away so that he escaped?" 

Michal told him, "He said to me, `Let me get away. Why should I kill you?'"

David's wife, Michal, warns David and gets him to flee. She then prepares a ruse to keep Saul's agents busy. She first claims that David is ill and the men go back to Saul. Saul, however, insists that if David is ill, they should just bring him in his bed! Saul will kill him them. But when the men look in David's bed, David is not there, only an idol and goat's hair, essentially a dummy.

Saul expects Michal to support him, but that is unreasonable. When Saul expresses his anger, Michal claims she was forced by David to let him go.

One notes that David's home with Michal has an idol in it. The idolatry of the ancient Near East is pervasive. Centuries before, Jacob's wife, Rachel, stole her father's household gods (Genesis 31: 19). Like that household, David and his wife have an idol in their home. (The Hebrew word translated "idol" here is "teraphim" (idol, image, תְּרָפִים). It is the same word used in Genesis 31 for the items stolen by Rachel.)

1 Samuel 19:18, Flight to Ramah

When David had fled and made his escape, he went to Samuel at Ramah and told him all that Saul had done to him. Then he and Samuel went to Naioth and stayed there.

David seeks refuge at Samuel's home in Ramah.

1 Samuel 19:19-24, Saul prophesies

Word came to Saul: "David is in Naioth at Ramah"; so he sent men to capture him. But when they saw a group of prophets prophesying, with Samuel standing there as their leader, the Spirit of God came upon Saul's men and they also prophesied.

Saul was told about it, and he sent more men, and they prophesied too. Saul sent men a third time, and they also prophesied. Finally, he himself left for Ramah and went to the great cistern at Secu. And he asked, "Where are Samuel and David?" 

"Over in Naioth at Ramah," they said.

So Saul went to Naioth at Ramah. But the Spirit of God came even upon him, and he walked along prophesying until he came to Naioth. He stripped off his robes and also prophesied in Samuel's presence. He lay that way all that day and night. 

This is why people say, "Is Saul also among the prophets?"

Saul hears of David's retreat to Ramah and three times sends people to capture David. Each time that attempt meets a supernatural phenomenon where Saul's men themselves become prophets! Finally Saul goes himself and, as had happened at the beginning of his reign, he himself is overcome, prophesying, stripping off his clothes and lying naked on the ground.

All of these strange events allow our narrator to remind us of an old saying, "Is Saul also among the prophets?" In both places, in I Samuel 10:11-12 and here, the saying is probably mocking Saul.

First published August 12, 2023; updated August 12, 2026

I Samuel 18, A Bloody Bride Price

David has killed the Philistine giant, Goliath, and has been added to Saul's collection of armor-bearers.

1 Samuel 18:1-4, David and Jonathan

After David had finished talking with Saul, Jonathan became one in spirit with David, and he loved him as himself. From that day Saul kept David with him and did not let him return to his father's house.

And Jonathan made a covenant with David because he loved him as himself. Jonathan took off the robe he was wearing and gave it to David, along with his tunic, and even his sword, his bow and his belt.

 

David and Jonathan become good friends. The king's son give David some of his clothes and weapons as a sign of their friendship. 

In the typical long-term view of the Old Testament histories, little is said about this friendship beyond these short statements. But both men are well-liked and aggressive, in contrast to the often tentative Saul. They are quick to win victories over the Philistines while Saul watches.

1 Samuel 18:5-9, David grows in fame

Whatever Saul sent him to do, David did it so successfully that Saul gave him a high rank in the army. This pleased all the people, and Saul's officers as well. When the men were returning home after David had killed the Philistine, the women came out from all the towns of Israel to meet King Saul with singing and dancing, with joyful songs and with tambourines and lutes. As they danced, they sang: "Saul has slain his thousands, and David his tens of thousands."

Saul was very angry; this refrain galled him. "They have credited David with tens of thousands," he thought, "but me with only thousands. What more can he get but the kingdom?" And from that time on Saul kept a jealous eye on David.

David grows in popularity and this becomes a threat to a jealous king.

As we have seen before (Miriam in Exodus 15:20-21, Deborah in Judges 5, the unsuspecting young women of Shiloh in Judges 21;20-2) one role of women in the ancient Near East was to lead triumphant singing and dancing.

1 Samuel 18:10-11, Angry Saul

The next day an evil spirit from God came forcefully upon Saul. He was prophesying in his house, while David was playing the harp, as he usually did. Saul had a spear in his hand and he hurled it, saying to himself, "I'll pin David to the wall." 

But David eluded him twice.

An evil (or "injurious") spirit afflicts Saul.  While Saul is "prophesying" (??), David plays the lyre and Saul tries to kill him.

1 Samuel 18:12-16, Fame continues to grow

Saul was afraid of David, because the LORD was with David but had left Saul. So he sent David away from him and gave him command over a thousand men, and David led the troops in their campaigns.

In everything he did he had great success, because the LORD was with him. When Saul saw how successful he was, he was afraid of him. But all Israel and Judah loved David, because he led them in their campaigns.

Despite Saul's jealousy, David's fame and popularity grow. YHWH has chosen David to succeed and Saul is frightened by this.

1 Samuel 18:17-19, Merab

Saul said to David, "Here is my older daughter Merab. I will give her to you in marriage; only serve me bravely and fight the battles of the LORD." For Saul said to himself, "I will not raise a hand against him. Let the Philistines do that!"

But David said to Saul, "Who am I, and what is my family or my father's clan in Israel, that I should become the king's son-in-law?" So when the time came for Merab, Saul's daughter, to be given to David, she was given in marriage to Adriel of Meholah.

David declines the offer of the king's daughter.

1 Samuel 18:20-23, Michal

Now Saul's daughter Michal was in love with David, and when they told Saul about it, he was pleased. "I will give her to him," he thought, "so that she may be a snare to him and so that the hand of the Philistines may be against him." 

So Saul said to David, "Now you have a second opportunity to become my son-in-law." Then Saul ordered his attendants: "Speak to David privately and say, `Look, the king is pleased with you, and his attendants all like you; now become his son-in-law.'"

They repeated these words to David. But David said, "Do you think it is a small matter to become the king's son-in-law? I'm only a poor man and little known."

 

David continues to be resistant to these offers by Saul. Michal has a crush on the popular David but David is still resistant. Earlier, with Samuel, Saul had claimed to be of little worth. Now it is David that says the same thing. Along with David's humility, there is an economic issue. A bride price for the king's daughter is surely quite high -- and David, the eighth son in his family, has no resources for this.

Robert Alter says that this passage is the only one in the Old Testament where we are told of a woman's romantic attraction to a particular man.

1 Samuel 18:24-27, A challenge offered

When Saul's servants told him what David had said, Saul replied, "Say to David, `The king wants no other price for the bride than a hundred Philistine foreskins, to take revenge on his enemies.'" Saul's plan was to have David fall by the hands of the Philistines.

When the attendants told David these things, he was pleased to become the king's son-in-law. So before the allotted time elapsed, David and his men went out and killed two hundred Philistines. He brought their foreskins and presented the full number to the king so that he might become the king's son-in-law. Then Saul gave him his daughter Michal in marriage.

The king's attendants to David have been told to pass on little encouragements for David to accept this challenge. The bride price does not require wealth but military might.

If David wants to be challenged by Saul, Saul will make the bride price challenging. Yet David meets and doubles the price. He wins a victory over the Philistines (with a typically bloody ending) and at the same time Michal gets her wish and becomes David's wife.

1 Samuel 18:28-30, Success and fame continue

When Saul realized that the LORD was with David and that his daughter Michal loved David, Saul became still more afraid of him, and he remained his enemy the rest of his days. 

The Philistine commanders continued to go out to battle, and as often as they did, David met with more success than the rest of Saul's officers, and his name became well known.

Nothing seems to stop David.

Some Hebrew Vocabulary

The Hebrew word mishpachah

מִשְׁפָחָה

is a feminine noun mean "family, clan, tribe". It is translated "clan" by the NIV in verse 18, above.

First published August 11, 2023; updated August 11, 2026

I Samuel 17, A Philistine Giant

David occasionally plays the lyre for Saul. Now we have another important event in young David's life.

I Samuel 17:1-7, Goliath

Now the Philistines gathered their forces for war and assembled at Socoh in Judah. They pitched camp at Ephes Dammim, between Socoh and Azekah. Saul and the Israelites assembled and camped in the Valley of Elah and drew up their battle line to meet the Philistines. The Philistines occupied one hill and the Israelites another, with the valley between them.

A champion named Goliath, who was from Gath, came out of the Philistine camp. He was over nine feet tall. He had a bronze helmet on his head and wore a coat of scale armor of bronze weighing five thousand shekels; on his legs he wore bronze greaves, and a bronze javelin was slung on his back. His spear shaft was like a weaver's rod, and its iron point weighed six hundred shekels. 

His shield bearer went ahead of him.

As before, the Israelites and Philistines face each other across a ravine or wadi, called the Valley of Elah. 

The Philistines have a giant in their army! Even his weapons and armor are heavy! The Masoretic Text for verse 7 says that Goliath's height was "six cubits and a span." The Dead Sea scrolls and the Septuagint have his height as "four cubits and a span." In the first case, Goliath is over 9 feet tall; in the second case, he is about 6'6".

Gath was an ancient Philistine city. Its ruins have been identified by archaeologists, see here. Later David will take refuge there when he is running from Saul.

I Samuel 17:8-11, Taunts

Goliath stood and shouted to the ranks of Israel, "Why do you come out and line up for battle? Am I not a Philistine, and are you not the servants of Saul? Choose a man and have him come down to me. If he is able to fight and kill me, we will become your subjects; but if I overcome him and kill him, you will become our subjects and serve us."

Then the Philistine said, "This day I defy the ranks of Israel! Give me a man and let us fight each other."

On hearing the Philistine's words, Saul and all the Israelites were dismayed and terrified.

Goliath taunts the Israelites and offers a challenge. Once again, Saul appears to be tentative and timid, unlike his son Jonathan.

I Samuel 17:12-16, 

Now David was the son of an Ephrathite named Jesse, who was from Bethlehem in Judah. Jesse had eight sons, and in Saul's time he was old and well advanced in years. Jesse's three oldest sons had followed Saul to the war: The firstborn was Eliab; the second, Abinadab; and the third, Shammah.

David was the youngest. The three oldest followed Saul, but David went back and forth from Saul to tend his father's sheep at Bethlehem.

For forty days the Philistine came forward every morning and evening and took his stand.

This passage introduces David as if chapter 16 did not exist. David's three older brothers have gone to war. As in the previous chapter, we are told the names of the oldest three.

The passage does have David going back and forth from Saul to Bethlehem. Is that because he occasionally plays his harp for Saul?

I Samuel 17:17-19, "Go check on your brothers"

Now Jesse said to his son David, "Take this ephah of roasted grain and these ten loaves of bread for your brothers and hurry to their camp. Take along these ten cheeses to the commander of their unit. See how your brothers are and bring back some assurance from them. They are with Saul and all the men of Israel in the Valley of Elah, fighting against the Philistines."

In this case, David is sent by his father to take food to the brothers and to check on them. Additional food is to be given to the brothers' commander.

I Samuel 17:20-25, 

Early in the morning David left the flock with a shepherd, loaded up and set out, as Jesse had directed. He reached the camp as the army was going out to its battle positions, shouting the war cry. Israel and the Philistines were drawing up their lines facing each other.

David left his things with the keeper of supplies, ran to the battle lines and greeted his brothers. As he was talking with them, Goliath, the Philistine champion from Gath, stepped out from his lines and shouted his usual defiance, and David heard it. 

When the Israelites saw the man, they all ran from him in great fear. Now the Israelites had been saying, "Do you see how this man keeps coming out? He comes out to defy Israel. The king will give great wealth to the man who kills him. He will also give him his daughter in marriage and will exempt his father's family from taxes in Israel."

David arrives at the battlefield during one of Goliath's challenges. He is told of great wealth being given to the one who defeats the giant.

I Samuel 17:26-30, Uncircumcised Philistine

David asked the men standing near him, "What will be done for the man who kills this Philistine and removes this disgrace from Israel? Who is this uncircumcised Philistine that he should defy the armies of the living God?"

They repeated to him what they had been saying and told him, "This is what will be done for the man who kills him."

When Eliab, David's oldest brother, heard him speaking with the men, he burned with anger at him and asked, "Why have you come down here? And with whom did you leave those few sheep in the desert? I know how conceited you are and how wicked your heart is; you came down only to watch the battle."

"Now what have I done?" said David. "Can't I even speak?" He then turned away to someone else and brought up the same matter, and the men answered him as before.

 

David asks some questions. He is especially bothered by the giant's insult of the God of Israel. David's older brother accuses David of rubbernecking, of coming to the frontlines just to watch the battle. David talks to a third person to once again here the details about Goliath and the reward for defeating him.

I Samuel 17:31-37, Lion and bear

What David said was overheard and reported to Saul, and Saul sent for him.

David said to Saul, "Let no one lose heart on account of this Philistine; your servant will go and fight him."

Saul replied, "You are not able to go out against this Philistine and fight him; you are only a boy, and he has been a fighting man from his youth."

But David said to Saul, "Your servant has been keeping his father's sheep. When a lion or a bear came and carried off a sheep from the flock, I went after it, struck it and rescued the sheep from its mouth. When it turned on me, I seized it by its hair, struck it and killed it. Your servant has killed both the lion and the bear; this uncircumcised Philistine will be like one of them, because he has defied the armies of the living God. The LORD who delivered me from the paw of the lion and the paw of the bear will deliver me from the hand of this Philistine." 

Saul said to David, "Go, and the LORD be with you."

 

David meets with Saul and stands up to the challenge. David, while in the fields as a shepherd, has already defeated powerful enemies. Robert Alter notes that David's vague statement, "Let no one lose heart..." is an indirect challenge to a king who has timidly and passively watched this giant taunt Israel and the God of Israel. David, like Jonathan in the previous chapter, wants action.

I Samuel 17:38-40, Armor or sling?

Then Saul dressed David in his own tunic. He put a coat of armor on him and a bronze helmet on his head. David fastened on his sword over the tunic and tried walking around, because he was not used to them. 

"I cannot go in these," he said to Saul, "because I am not used to them." So he took them off.

Then he took his staff in his hand, chose five smooth stones from the stream, put them in the pouch of his shepherd's bag and, with his sling in his hand, approached the Philistine.

The heavy armor is cumbersome and David is accustomed to a slingshot. (The bulky armor may give David insight into Goliath's weaknesses!)

David searches out five smooth stones from a nearby stream, stones that he can use as ammunition.

I Samuel 17:41-44, More taunts

Meanwhile, the Philistine, with his shield bearer in front of him, kept coming closer to David. He looked David over and saw that he was only a boy, ruddy and handsome, and he despised him.

He said to David, "Am I a dog, that you come at me with sticks?" And the Philistine cursed David by his gods."Come here," he said, "and I'll give your flesh to the birds of the air and the beasts of the field!"

Goliath looks on the small man and taunts him some more, describing what will happen to David's corpse after they meet. Once again, as in the previous chapter, David is characterized as "ruddy and handsome."

I Samuel 17:45-47, In the name of YHWH, Almighty

David said to the Philistine, "You come against me with sword and spear and javelin, but I come against you in the name of the LORD Almighty, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you have defied. This day the LORD will hand you over to me, and I'll strike you down and cut off your head. Today I will give the carcasses of the Philistine army to the birds of the air and the beasts of the earth, and the whole world will know that there is a God in Israel.

 

"All those gathered here will know that it is not by sword or spear that the LORD saves; for the battle is the LORD's, and he will give all of you into our hands."

David responds that it is only YHWH who gives victory. This response is part of David's past experience and one reason he has been picked as future king. David shows no fear or timidity and expresses strong confidence in an active God.

I Samuel 17:48-51, Winning with sling and stone

As the Philistine moved closer to attack him, David ran quickly toward the battle line to meet him. Reaching into his bag and taking out a stone, he slung it and struck the Philistine on the forehead. The stone sank into his forehead, and he fell facedown on the ground.

So David triumphed over the Philistine with a sling and a stone; without a sword in his hand he struck down the Philistine and killed him. David ran and stood over him. He took hold of the Philistine's sword and drew it from the scabbard. After he killed him, he cut off his head with the sword. When the Philistines saw that their hero was dead, they turned and ran.

 

David runs at the Philistine as if to engage him, but while doing so, arms his slingshot. Before he is within the reach of Goliath, a well thrown stone knocks the Philistine unconscious. David then kills the man with the man's own sword. The surprising upset frightens the Philistines and they flee.

I Samuel 17:52-54, Rout

Then the men of Israel and Judah surged forward with a shout and pursued the Philistines to the entrance of Gath and to the gates of Ekron. Their dead were strewn along the Shaaraim road to Gath and Ekron. When the Israelites returned from chasing the Philistines, they plundered their camp.

David took the Philistine's head and brought it to Jerusalem, and he put the Philistine's weapons in his own tent.

 

The Israelite army takes advantage of the fleeing Philistines and routs them. David takes the Philistine's head to Jerusalem and puts the giant's weapons in his own tent.

In many ways, David parallels Jonathan. They are both aggressive, both loudly state their defiance of the Philistines and their reliance on YHWH. Both strike suddenly and quickly, sending the Philistines into chaotic retreat.

I Samuel 17:55-58, Who is that man?

As Saul watched David going out to meet the Philistine, he said to Abner, commander of the army, "Abner, whose son is that young man?" 

Abner replied, "As surely as you live, O king, I don't know."

The king said, "Find out whose son this young man is."

As soon as David returned from killing the Philistine, Abner took him and brought him before Saul, with David still holding the Philistine's head. "Whose son are you, young man?" Saul asked him. 

David said, "I am the son of your servant Jesse of Bethlehem."

At the end of this chapter, Saul does not appear to know David, and insists on meeting with David and learning his lineage. Are the events of the previous chapter out of order? (Is it after this that David plays the harp for Saul? Flashbacks of this type do appear in the Old Testament but are usually noted.) Or did Saul pay no attention previously to the identity of the young harpist in playing in the corner and is he only now learning of him? Even here, Saul does not seem to have paid much attention to David before, when David tried on Saul's armor, and only gets serious about the identity of the young man when the man gives the army victory over the Philistines.

We have now been introduced to David three times. First, in chapter 16, David is anointed by Samuel as future king and then he is introduced to Saul as a harpist. Finally, in this chapter, he is introduced to Saul as a shepherd who will take on Goliath. There have long been rabbinic discussions on the two introductions of David to Saul (harpist, Goliath-slayer.) These questions about David may explain some discrepancies between the ancient Masoretic Text (MT) and the Septuagint (LXX). Those discrepancies, and one possible explanation, are described here.

First published August 10, 2023; updated August 10, 2026

The Old Testament Manuscripts

Last Sunday we looked at the Old Testament text, its scripts and how it was transmitted. (See The Transmission of the Old Testament.) In this Sunday essay we look at the Old Testament manuscripts themselves, describing the oldest copies available to scholars.

The Old Testament writings cover thousands of years of history and were likely written across a number of centuries, possibly a millennium.  During that time the language and writings of the main characters changed, from a proto-Hebrew language of Abraham to a well-developed Hebrew language of Isaiah and Jeremiah and an Aramaic language most likely spoken by Daniel and Esther. Sometime during the Second Temple period, after the remnant of the nation returned from Babylon to Israel but before the time of Christ, the Old Testament canon was formed. That canon consisted of 24 scrolls of scripture, the TaNaKh, written in Hebrew. 

What was the text of that ancient canon?

The Hebrew scrolls were made of papyrus or leather. To make a new scroll, one had to carefully copy the old one, line by line, symbol by symbol. The scrolls were time-consuming to make and were used for worship and so decayed over time. Because of the value of the scrolls, few scrolls were made for posterity; instead a new scroll would be weekly used in a synagogue for worship. Still, archaeologists have found some ancient Hebrew manuscripts, now preserved in museums.  

In addition to the ancient Hebrew scrolls, the Jews eventually made a variety of translations of the texts into other languages. Some of those ancient writings have also survived, giving us further insight into the earliest manuscripts.

We will first look at the most ancient Hebrew manuscripts.

The Masoretic Text

The Masoretes were a collection of Jewish scholars in the early Middle Ages living in Israel and Iraq. They had careful rules for copying the scrolls of the TaNaKh (Old Testament) and did an impressive job of preserving the texts so that there were few copy errors from manuscript to manuscript. Their copies of the TaNaKh, usually identified as the Masoretic Text (MT) is the primary source for modern translations of the Old Testament. (When the NIV footnotes mention the "Hebrew text", this is the MT.)

The oldest preserved complete copy of the TaNaKh in Hebrew is the Leningrad Codex, copied in Cairo, Egypt about 1008 AD. There are other older manuscripts with parts of the TaNaKh, but this is the earliest complete copy. (The Aleppo Codex is an incomplete copy from about 920 AD; the Codex Sassoon is an incomplete copy from about the same time. Both were created by the Masoretes.)

Other ancient Hebrew texts

Although the Masoretic scrolls provide us with the most complete and consistent copies of the TaNaKh, there are other old fragments of the TaNaKh written in Hebrew. These are useful in comparison with the MT. 

Papyrus and leather normally did not survive the ravages of time. For papyrus or leather scrolls to survive across several millennia, the climate had to be quite dry and the scrolls had to be in an environment (such as glass jars) that aided preservation. For this reason, the oldest scrolls are found in Egypt or the Middle East. However, there are fragments of Hebrew that were written on other, more permanent materials. The Ketef Hinnom scrolls are two silver amulets dating from the time of the Second Temple. They are written in a paleo-Hebrew script that predates the Hebrew of the Masoretic Text. These bracelets appear to have a version of the blessing from Numbers 6:24-26. (I can imagine a Jewish mother giving these "blessing" amulets to her daughter on her wedding day, valued by the young bride as a segullah.) These two amulets give us insight into the script that would have been used by priests like Isaiah or earlier writers like King Solomon.

The Nash Papyrus is an ancient Hebrew fragment found in Egypt in 1902 and tentatively dated to about 100 BC. It only contains the Ten Commandments and part of the Shema prayer from Deuteronomy 6:4-9.  It was likely used as part of a personal devotional.

Outside the Masoretic scrolls, the most significant ancient scrolls are the Dead Sea Scrolls found in caves at Qumran. The Dead Sea Scrolls contain many thousands of fragments, covering all of the TaNaKh but the book of Esther. The scrolls include a complete scroll of Isaiah. These documents have been very useful in comparison with the Masoretic Text. Although there are numerous discrepancies between the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Masoretic Text, between texts separated by one thousand years and cultures, the differences are minor.

When King Solomon died, the nation of Israel split into two countries, the northern kingdom consisting of ten tribes led by Jeroboam and the southern kingdom, consisting of Judah and Bethlehem, led by Solomon's son, Rehoboam.  The temple and ark of the covenant were in Judah, at Jerusalem and so the northern tribes could either go south to worship in Jerusalem, in the rival kingdom, or they could set up a new worship center distinct from that of Judah. (The northern kingdom was called, at various times, Israel, Ephraim, or Samaria and the capital was at Samaria.) The northern kingdom was defeated in 722 BC and absorbed into Assyria. In 586 BC the southern kingdom was defeated by the Babylonians and most of the Israelites were deported to Babylon.  

When the descendants of the southern kingdom returned to the region in 516 BC, they rebuilt Jerusalem, built a second temple and reconstructed the nation of Israel.  (These details are reported in the Old Testament books of Nehemiah and Ezra.)  At that time, there was conflict with the local inhabitants, including people living in Samaria. Some Samaritans attempted to preserve the Jewish worship but continued to insist that worship should be in Samaria, not Jerusalem. At that time, they apparently used a copy of the Torah (first five book of the TaNaKh) that was very close to the Masoretic text except it was written in Samaritan Hebrew and, in a few places, had slightly different wording, changes made to support the worship of YHWH in Samaria. Copies of this document are called the Samaritan Pentateuch. Like the Dead Sea Scrolls, they are useful in comparison with the MT.

The Septuagint

By 200 BC, Greek was the common language around the Mediterranean Sea and many Jewish communities spoke Greek. Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, created a translation of the Old Testament into Greek. This is the Septuagint translation (LXX). The Septuagint was the Old Testament document used by the early Christian church and by Jewish communities of that time. Although it is in Greek, it provides insight into the Hebrew text of that day. (When New Testament writers quote from the Old Testament, they are quoting from the Septuagint.)

Other manuscripts

Other ancient manuscripts include the Peshitta translations of the Old Testament (written in Syriac, a language close to Aramaic) and the Vulgate (written in Latin.) The oldest manuscript copies of these translations date to around 500 AD. The Targum documents were written in Aramaic. In addition to these manuscripts, there are numerous ancient commentaries on the TaNaKh that add insight into the texts of that time. A Wikipedia page on Jewish commentaries is here.

Summary

Hebrew scholars can construct a fairly consistent understanding of the ancient Hebrew texts by beginning with the Masoretic text(s) and comparing them with other ancient manuscripts: the Dead Sea Scrolls (also in Hebrew), the Samaritan Pentateuch (in Samaritan Hebrew), the Septuagint (in Greek) and other ancient translations such as the Aramaic Targums, the Peshitta, and the Latin Vulgate. A summary of these sources is given at this Wikipedia page. 

As a nerdy mathematician, in love with history, I am fascinated by the scholarly debates over the priorities of the various texts. But for those who simply wish to understand the Bible, these debates over minor word changes are not particularly relevant.

Resources

In addition to the Wikipedia links, above, I have used the following two books:

1. The Journey from Text to Translations by Paul D. Wegner (specifically chapter 12) 
2. The Canon of Scripture by F. F. Bruce (chapter 2)

Reactions? thoughts? Feel free to respond in our comments section. 

First published July 9, 2025; updated August 9, 2028

I Samuel 16, A Son of Jesse will be King

God has rejected Saul as king. But it will take awhile for a new king to arise.

I Samuel 16:1-3, YHWH has a new king in mind

The LORD said to Samuel, "How long will you mourn for Saul, since I have rejected him as king over Israel? Fill your horn with oil and be on your way; I am sending you to Jesse of Bethlehem. I have chosen one of his sons to be king."

But Samuel said, "How can I go? Saul will hear about it and kill me." 

The LORD said, "Take a heifer with you and say, `I have come to sacrifice to the LORD.' Invite Jesse to the sacrifice, and I will show you what to do. You are to anoint for me the one I indicate."

YHWH instructs Samuel to prepare to anoint a new king.  But this is dangerous, given that Saul will not like this. So YHWH suggests a trip with two goals.

Samuel is traveling to Bethlehem, the town of Ruth and Boaz, and their descendants, Obed and Jesse.

I Samuel 16:4-5, Arrival at Bethlehem

Samuel did what the LORD said. When he arrived at Bethlehem, the elders of the town trembled when they met him. They asked, "Do you come in peace?"

Samuel replied, "Yes, in peace; I have come to sacrifice to the LORD. Consecrate yourselves and come to the sacrifice with me." 

Then he consecrated Jesse and his sons and invited them to the sacrifice.

The people of Bethlehem are a bit threatened by the arrival of Samuel. Samuel is a powerful figure and, whether they perceive this or not, he is in conflict with their king. But Samuel reassures them and invites the sons of Jesse to the sacrifice.

I Samuel 16:6-10, Which one

When they arrived, Samuel saw Eliab and thought, "Surely the LORD's anointed stands here before the LORD."

But the LORD said to Samuel, "Do not consider his appearance or his height, for I have rejected him. The LORD does not look at the things man looks at. Man looks at the outward appearance, but the LORD looks at the heart."

Then Jesse called Abinadab and had him pass in front of Samuel. But Samuel said, "The LORD has not chosen this one either."

Jesse then had Shammah pass by, but Samuel said, "Nor has the LORD chosen this one." Jesse had seven of his sons pass before Samuel, but Samuel said to him, "The LORD has not chosen these."

Jesse has some impressive sons.  But the one YHWH wants is not there.

Each son passes in front of Samuel and Samuel is reminded by YHWH that He looks on the heart, not the stature.  This man who comes after Saul, will not have the dramatic stature of Saul.

A standard Old Testament storytelling device occurs here: We are given an account #1, then #2, then #3, with identical phrases, followed by "and so on."  We are told, one by one, of the rejection of the first three sons, and then we quickly skip through all seven.

I Samuel 16:11-13, One more son

So he asked Jesse, "Are these all the sons you have?" 

"There is still the youngest," Jesse answered, "but he is tending the sheep." Samuel said, "Send for him; we will not sit down until he arrives."

So he sent and had him brought in. He was ruddy, with a fine appearance and handsome features. Then the LORD said, "Rise and anoint him; he is the one." So Samuel took the horn of oil and anointed him in the presence of his brothers, and from that day on the Spirit of the LORD came upon David in power. Samuel then went to Ramah.

The youngest son, the eighth. is also attractive -- but not just physically but spiritually. YHWH likes his heart.  

The Spirit of God comes upon David. And then Samuel goes home. David likely returns to tending sheep.

I Samuel 16:14-17, Evil spirit

Now the Spirit of the LORD had departed from Saul, and an evil spirit from the LORD tormented him. Saul's attendants said to him, "See, an evil spirit from God is tormenting you. Let our lord command his servants here to search for someone who can play the harp. He will play when the evil spirit from God comes upon you, and you will feel better."

So Saul said to his attendants, "Find someone who plays well and bring him to me."

The Spirit of God departs Saul, just as it has now come upon David. Instead of the Spirit of God, Saul is traumatized by an evil (or injurious) spirit. Apparently music will soothe his soul and so there is a search for a harpist. (To my Sam Houston friends who majored in Music Therapy -- David is your model! 😋) 

I Samuel 16:18-23, Get David

One of the servants answered, "I have seen a son of Jesse of Bethlehem who knows how to play the harp. He is a brave man and a warrior. He speaks well and is a fine-looking man. And the LORD is with him."

Then Saul sent messengers to Jesse and said, "Send me your son David, who is with the sheep." So Jesse took a donkey loaded with bread, a skin of wine and a young goat and sent them with his son David to Saul. David came to Saul and entered his service. Saul liked him very much, and David became one of his armor-bearers.

Then Saul sent word to Jesse, saying, "Allow David to remain in my service, for I am pleased with him."

Whenever the spirit from God came upon Saul, David would take his harp and play. Then relief would come to Saul; he would feel better, and the evil spirit would leave him.

So the anointed young king-in-waiting will play for the aging king.  This is the beginning of a grand conflict and a grand story

First published August 9, 2023; updated August 8, 2026

I Samuel 15, A Torn Robe

Saul has been enlarging the land of Israel and preventing plunder from their enemies.  

I Samuel 15:1-3, Go attack the Amalekites

Samuel said to Saul, "I am the one the LORD sent to anoint you king over his people Israel; so listen now to the message from the LORD. This is what the LORD Almighty says: `I will punish the Amalekites for what they did to Israel when they waylaid them as they came up from Egypt. Now go, attack the Amalekites and totally destroy everything that belongs to them. Do not spare them; put to death men and women, children and infants, cattle and sheep, camels and donkeys.'"

Samuel tells Saul to attack the Amalekites and "totally destroy everything". The Amalekites are to be  items herem, "fully devoted to YHWH." This instruction continues a campaign begun in Exodus 17:8-16, a result of the Amalekites attacking stragglers of Israel as they moved from Egypt to Canaan (Deuteronomy 25:17-19.)

I Samuel 15:4-9, Amalekites defeated

So Saul summoned the men and mustered them at Telaim--two hundred thousand foot soldiers and ten thousand men from Judah. Saul went to the city of Amalek and set an ambush in the ravine. 

Then he said to the Kenites, "Go away, leave the Amalekites so that I do not destroy you along with them; for you showed kindness to all the Israelites when they came up out of Egypt." So the Kenites moved away from the Amalekites.

Then Saul attacked the Amalekites all the way from Havilah to Shur, to the east of Egypt. He took Agag king of the Amalekites alive, and all his people he totally destroyed with the sword. But Saul and the army spared Agag and the best of the sheep and cattle, the fat calves and lambs--everything that was good. These they were unwilling to destroy completely, but everything that was despised and weak they totally destroyed.

Saul defeats the Amalekites but does not totally destroy everything. In this, Saul disobeys a specific instruction of YHWH.

The Old Testament issue with large numbers arises here. A mammoth army of 200,000 foot soldiers would not be consistent with an ambush in a ravine. As in previous cases, one might wonder if that number is a copyist's error, an example of ancient Near Eastern hyperbole, or a misinterpretation of the word eleph (אֶלֶף.)

I Samuel 15:10-15, YHWH grieved

Then the word of the LORD came to Samuel: "I am grieved that I have made Saul king, because he has turned away from me and has not carried out my instructions." 

Samuel was troubled, and he cried out to the LORD all that night.

Early in the morning Samuel got up and went to meet Saul, but he was told, "Saul has gone to Carmel. There he has set up a monument in his own honor and has turned and gone on down to Gilgal." When Samuel reached him, Saul said, "The LORD bless you! I have carried out the LORD's instructions."

But Samuel said, "What then is this bleating of sheep in my ears? What is this lowing of cattle that I hear?" Saul answered, "The soldiers brought them from the Amalekites; they spared the best of the sheep and cattle to sacrifice to the LORD your God, but we totally destroyed the rest."

 

Saul's arrogance and disobedience "grieves" YHWH. Samuel hunts for Saul and when he finds him, challenges Saul about his disobedience. Saul deflects the accusation with an excuse that he saved some things to be sacrificed to YHWH.

I Samuel 15:16-21, Saul's excuses

"Stop!" Samuel said to Saul. "Let me tell you what the LORD said to me last night." 

"Tell me," Saul replied.

Samuel said, "Although you were once small in your own eyes, did you not become the head of the tribes of Israel? The LORD anointed you king over Israel. And he sent you on a mission, saying, `Go and completely destroy those wicked people, the Amalekites; make war on them until you have wiped them out.'

"Why did you not obey the LORD? Why did you pounce on the plunder and do evil in the eyes of the LORD?"

"But I did obey the LORD," Saul said. "I went on the mission the LORD assigned me. I completely destroyed the Amalekites and brought back Agag their king. The soldiers took sheep and cattle from the plunder, the best of what was devoted to God, in order to sacrifice them to the LORD your God at Gilgal."

Samuel accuses Saul of not obeying his mission.There is also a suggestion that a once small and humble Saul is humble no more. Saul continues his excuses.

I Samuel 15:22-23, To obey is better than sacrifice

But Samuel replied: "Does the LORD delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices as much as in obeying the voice of the LORD? To obey is better than sacrifice, and to heed is better than the fat of rams. For rebellion is like the sin of divination, and arrogance like the evil of idolatry. Because you have rejected the word of the LORD, he has rejected you as king."

In a now famous line, "To obey is better than sacrifice", Samuel ridicules Saul's idea of disobeying YHWH by offering sacrifices to YHWH. Saul is explicitly charged with rebellion and arrogance.

I Samuel 15:24-26, Rejected as king

Then Saul said to Samuel, "I have sinned. I violated the LORD's command and your instructions. I was afraid of the people and so I gave in to them. Now I beg you, forgive my sin and come back with me, so that I may worship the LORD."

But Samuel said to him, "I will not go back with you. You have rejected the word of the LORD, and the LORD has rejected you as king over Israel!"

Saul is now apologetic.  But it is too late.

I Samuel 15:27-31, Torn robe

As Samuel turned to leave, Saul caught hold of the hem of his robe, and it tore. Samuel said to him, "The LORD has torn the kingdom of Israel from you today and has given it to one of your neighbors--to one better than you. He who is the Glory of Israel does not lie or change his mind; for he is not a man, that he should change his mind."

Saul replied, "I have sinned. But please honor me before the elders of my people and before Israel; come back with me, so that I may worship the LORD your God."

So Samuel went back with Saul, and Saul worshiped the LORD.

Saul, in his response, accidentally tears Samuel's robe, which Samuel then uses as a metaphor for Saul's kingdom. Despite all of this, we are told Saul returned to worship YHWH.

I Samuel 15:32-34, Agag executed

Then Samuel said, "Bring me Agag king of the Amalekites." 

Agag came to him confidently, thinking, "Surely the bitterness of death is past."

But Samuel said, "As your sword has made women childless, so will your mother be childless among women." And Samuel put Agag to death before the LORD at Gilgal. Then Samuel left for Ramah, but Saul went up to his home in Gibeah of Saul.

Saul had even allowed the king to live.  \But Samuel takes care of that problem. The king who had made women childless is himself killed. His own mother is now childless.

I Samuel 15:35, Severed

Until the day Samuel died, he did not go to see Saul again, though Samuel mourned for him. And the LORD was grieved that he had made Saul king over Israel.

This event has severed the relationship of the two leaders.

There is a lot said -- and unsaid -- in this passage about Saul and Samuel. Both men have strengths and weaknesses; Saul vacillates between indecision and arrogance; Samuel at times seems to be petty and deliberately irritating Saul. Jewish rabbis have debated the merits of these two leaders for a long time.

First published August 8, 2023; updated August 7, 2026