The Transmission of the Old Testament

The Old Testament writings cover thousands of years of history and were likely written across a number of centuries, possibly a millenium.  During that time the language and writings of the main characters changed, from possibly a proto-Hebrew or Akkadian language of Abraham to a well-developed Hebrew language of Isaiah and Jeremiah and an Aramaic language most likely spoken by Daniel and Esther.  In this Sunday essay, we will lightly explore the transmission of the Old Testament, from ancient Hebrew into modern languages such as English.

Hebrew scrolls

The language of the early Israelites, of Moses, Joshua and David, was Hebrew.  This was a Northwest Semitic language closely related to Akkadian, Aramaic and Ugaritic.  Written Hebrew involved 22 letters, all consonants, no vowels. Core words had three consonants. The text was read from right to left.

In the third or fourth millennium BC, Egyptians took papyrus reeds, grown along the Nile, and pressed them into a soft thick paper-like substance, papyrus, and wrote on sheets of papyrus with dark ink. At the same time the Babylonians wrote on soft clay which, once dried, created permanent clay tablets. Although the Law of Moses was recorded on stone (Exodus 31:18, Joshua 8:32), later copies of Hebrew writings were written on papyrus or animal skin, rolled up into scrolls. Both papyrus and animal skin decayed over times and so these ancient writings were copied again and again, to create new scrolls. These scrolls were an integral part of Jewish worship in the time of Jesus (see Luke 4: 16-21) and are still used today (see this Wikipedia article on the Sefer Torah.)

TaNaKh

Sometime in the Second Temple period, after the return from Babylon, the remnants of Israel living in Palestine organized the scriptures into 24 scrolls. There were three parts to this collection of scripture.  According to F. F. Bruce in The Canon of Scripture, there was 

• the Torah (the "Law", that is, the five Books of Moses), 
• the Nevi'im (the "prophets": Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Exekiel and the Book of the Twelve Prophets) 
• and then the Ketuvim ("writings", including Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles.) 

As many Hebrew words have three consonants, it was common to shorten Torah-Nevi'im-Ketuvim to TaNaKh and so the TaNaKh was the general term for the Jewish scriptures. 

As an aside: it is to this collection of scrolls that Jesus refers in Matthew 23:35 when he attacks the legalism of the Pharisees and accuses them of being responsible for bloodshed, from the first murder, of Abel, to the last murder, of Zechariah. Obviously the murder of Abel was the first murder mentioned in scripture. But what of Zechariah? The murder of the prophet Zechariah is described in 2 Chronicles 24:20-21. At the time of Jesus, the scroll of (1 & 2) Chronicles was the last scroll of the TaNaKh and so the murder of Zechariah was the last murder in the Hebrew scriptures.

Later synagogue collections (says F. F. Bruce) might have counted 22 scrolls, including Ruth as part of  Judges and Lamentations as part of Jeremiah. For example, ancient Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus, assumed 22 scrolls.

The Hebrew alphabet

The Hebrew script has changed over time. The early Hebrew writings were probably done in a script called paleo-Hebrew. This was likely the alphabet of David and Solomon. After the Babylonian captivity, this script of 22 consonants took on the Aramaic alphabet and eventually developed the "square script" alphabet of Biblical Hebrew. This writing still did not have consonants. (Eventually, there was a distinction between the letters sin and shin and so some versions of biblical Hebrew had 23 letters.)

At some point, in order to carefully preserve these sacred texts, copyists were required to follow precise rules for accurately copying the old texts.  These rules included counting all the letters in the text and noting the center word and letter, as a type of error-checking. These precise copiers, who emphasized careful counting, were called soferim ("counters".) This error-checking assumes that a formal canon of Hebrew scripture had been determined by that time. (Tradition has the priest Ezra as an early sofer; the profession of sofer most likely evolved into the class of men called "scribes" in the New Testament.)

In 2019 a clay bulla with the name of a temple official from the time of the divided kingdom was found in a dig in Jerusalem. The inscription on the seal, in ancient Hebrew script, reads "(belonging) to Nathan-Melech, Servant of the King”. (See 2 Kings 23:11 where Nathan-Melech is mentioned.) The ancient script of that time predates the later scripts showing up in the Masoretic texts.

Conflicts in the text

By about the second or third century BC, Jewish scribes had very rigorous rules for copying texts. Comparisons between the Dead Sea Scrolls (c. 200 BC) and the Masoretic Text (c. 900 AD) show few discrepancies.  However, there are still many places where the ancient texts vary.  In modern translations these differences are usually marked by footnotes.  The differences are almost always minor, often small discrepancies in spellings. These small variants, for one interested in languages, are somewhat enlightening.  I give two examples here, partly to emphasize the serious nature of the copyists and also to show the types of discrepancies that occur.

One example of a textual debate, given by Paul Wegner (in The Journey from Texts to Translations) occurs in Judges 18:30, where some ancient manuscripts replace the name Moses with Manasseh. This change is indicated by inserting the Hebrew letter נַ (nun) into the name of Moses, changing  משֶׁה to   מְנַשֶּׁה. (Remember, we read from right to left!) Because the scribe was copying scripture and making any changes to scripture text is a serious matter, this insertion was not done secretly. The insertion of nun into the name Moses was indicated in ancient texts by suspending the letter nun half a line above the ordinary text, so that the insertion is recognized as an alternative reading. It is possible that this insertion was made because the text describes idolatry in Dan, during the reign of certain priests. Manasseh (here meant to be the seventh century BC king of Judah) is more likely than Moses to have had a son who allowed idolatry. In keeping with that interpretation, we note that the verse describes idolatry occurring until the time of captivity, presumably the Babylonian captivity that occurred shortly after the reign of Manasseh.  Whoever inserted the letter nun believed that the original text had read מְנַשֶּׁה. but that an earlier copyist, accustomed to writing "Moses", had accidentally left out the second character, נַ. We emphasize that the later copyist was not free to make changes without adding marks to indicate the change.

Our second example is not a discrepancy but a place of confusion. In Exodus 25:5 an offering to be given YHWH in the building of the Tabernacle includes precious medals, along with beautifully dyed garments and tehashim (תְּחָשִׁ֖ים). This strange word only occurs five times in the Old Testament, all five times in Exodus, always dealing with gifts to the sanctuary. Translating ancient words is especially difficult when they are rare and this is a classic example. Because the word is applied to skins, various English translations translate this as "dolphin", "badger", "sea cow", or "dugong." One version of the NIV translates the word as "durable leather". But Robert Alter, in his translation of Exodus, argues that this word is most likely an Akkadian loan word for a yellow or orange dye. Alter argues that translating this word as a colorful dye fits into the context of beautifully colored garments.

Careful examination of various ancient texts then raises questions such as:

• Was it Manasseh or Moses who had a son that allowed idolatry? 
• Was the tehashim in Exodus an aquatic animal or the color of a dye? 

Hebrew scholars love to debate things like this (and publish papers on the Hebrew translation) but for  most of us these small disputes are irrelevant. These small disputes emphasize that Old Testament Hebrew was an ancient language with insight into an ancient culture.

Ancient sources for the Old Testament

Since the Hebrew scrolls (whether papyrus or leather) decayed over time, a natural question is "What are our sources, today, for the Old Testament?" To be blunt, "How reliable is our copy of the Old Testament?"  

This question leans on the legitimacy of the oldest scrolls. 

One major source for the ancient Hebrew documents were scrolls created by the Masoretes, a Jewish group of scribes and scholars who copied the scrolls from 500 to 1000 AD. The Masoretes followed very rigid rules for copying the text and used marks over the Hebrew consonants to indicate the missing vowels. Most Old Testament translations rely on the Masoretic text (MT); the NIV footnotes simply call this the "Hebrew" text. There are other ancient manuscripts; some, like the Septuagint, are translations of the ancient Hebrew into other languages. We will look in more detail at these ancient texts in a future Sunday essay.

First published July 2, 2025; updated August 2, 2026

I Samuel 10, Saul Prophesies

Samuel has retained Saul at his home, telling him that there is a message from God for him.

1 Samuel 10:1-4, Anointment

Then Samuel took a flask of oil and poured it on Saul's head and kissed him, saying, "Has not the LORD anointed you leader over his inheritance? When you leave me today, you will meet two men near Rachel's tomb, at Zelzah on the border of Benjamin. They will say to you, `The donkeys you set out to look for have been found. And now your father has stopped thinking about them and is worried about you. He is asking, "What shall I do about my son?"'

"Then you will go on from there until you reach the great tree of Tabor. Three men going up to God at Bethel will meet you there. One will be carrying three young goats, another three loaves of bread, and another a skin of wine. They will greet you and offer you two loaves of bread, which you will accept from them.

Samuel predicts some events that are to come.  The NIV translation in verse 1 follows ancient Hebrew Masoretic manuscripts. But the Septuagint and Latin Vulgate manuscripts replace the question

"Has not the LORD anointed you leader over his inheritance?" 

with a longer statement

"Has not the LORD anointed you leader over his people Israel? You will reign over the LORD's people and save them from the power of their enemies round about. And this will be a sign to you that the LORD has anointed you leader over his inheritance."

Samuel attempts to convince Saul that this anointing is divinely planned and so provides events that will occur after Saul heads home. At the "great tree of Tabor", he will meet three men, carrying three goats, three loaves of bread and one wineskin of wine. In addition to the specificity of this prophesy, we might note that once again, in this dry and desert land, a great tree can be a distinctive landmark (unlike east Texas or Michigan!)

1 Samuel 10:5-7, Prophesy

"After that you will go to Gibeah of God, where there is a Philistine outpost. As you approach the town, you will meet a procession of prophets coming down from the high place with lyres, tambourines, flutes and harps being played before them, and they will be prophesying. The Spirit of the LORD will come upon you in power, and you will prophesy with them; and you will be changed into a different person. Once these signs are fulfilled, do whatever your hand finds to do, for God is with you.

The next sign Samuel gives Saul will occur at Gibeah, Saul's home.  (Gibeah is the same town where the woman was raped and killed in Judges 19.) In Gibeah, Saul is free to join the prophets and the Holy Spirit will take over him then. When that occurs, Saul is to follow his instincts in his next action.

Commentators point out the three stages of Saul's coronation: 

(1) He is anointed, secretly, by Samuel in the previous chapter. 

(2) He is chosen by lot (later in this chapter) and then 

(3) he is chosen by public proclamation in the next chapter. 

If one wonders why some of this is being done in secrecy, we might note that the Philistines have an outpost in Gibeah and so appear to be currently occupying the region. The Philistine occupiers would not take lightly a decision by Israel to appoint a king.

1 Samuel 10:8, "Wait seven days"

"Go down ahead of me to Gilgal. I will surely come down to you to sacrifice burnt offerings and fellowship offerings, but you must wait seven days until I come to you and tell you what you are to do."

 

Samuel gives an important instruction to Saul about waiting seven days after he arrives at Gilgal

I Samuel 10:9-12, "Is Saul among the prophets?"

As Saul turned to leave Samuel, God changed Saul's heart, and all these signs were fulfilled that day. When they arrived at Gibeah, a procession of prophets met him; the Spirit of God came upon him in power, and he joined in their prophesying. When all those who had formerly known him saw him prophesying with the prophets, they asked each other, "What is this that has happened to the son of Kish? Is Saul also among the prophets?"

A man who lived there answered, "And who is their father?" So it became a saying: "Is Saul also among the prophets?"

A strange thing happens to Saul as he searches out the prophets -- he, himself, begins to prophesy! (The saying, "Is Saul among the prophets?" is probably asked in awe here. Later it will be a sign of mockery.) Schools of prophets show up a few times in the Old Testament, in 2 Kings 2, for example and 2 Kings 4:38-41.  Some schools had a "father" leader, but Saul did not. 

1 Samuel 10:13-16, "Just donkeys"

After Saul stopped prophesying, he went to the high place. Now Saul's uncle asked him and his servant, "Where have you been?" 

"Looking for the donkeys," he said. 

"But when we saw they were not to be found, we went to Samuel."

Saul's uncle said, "Tell me what Samuel said to you."

Saul replied, "He assured us that the donkeys had been found." But he did not tell his uncle what Samuel had said about the kingship.

 

Saul is suddenly reticent and does not want his uncle to know what has happened. All of this may be a bit overwhelming!

1 Samuel 10:17-19, Samuel summons Israel

Samuel summoned the people of Israel to the LORD at Mizpah and said to them, "This is what the LORD, the God of Israel, says: `I brought Israel up out of Egypt, and I delivered you from the power of Egypt and all the kingdoms that oppressed you.' But you have now rejected your God, who saves you out of all your calamities and distresses. And you have said, `No, set a king over us.' So now present yourselves before the LORD by your tribes and clans."

Samuel claims that choosing a king is rejecting YHWH -- but a king will indeed be chosen.

(The Hebrew word eleph at the end of this paragraph is here translated "clans".  Elsewhere in the Old Testament it is often translated "thousands" and the King James Version uses the word "thousands" here, instead of "clans".  The ambiguity of this ancient Hebrew word is discuss in The Problem of Large Numbers in the Old Testament.)

1 Samuel 10:20-23, Among the baggage

When Samuel brought all the tribes of Israel near, the tribe of Benjamin was chosen. Then he brought forward the tribe of Benjamin, clan by clan, and Matri's clan was chosen. Finally Saul son of Kish was chosen. But when they looked for him, he was not to be found.

So they inquired further of the LORD, "Has the man come here yet?" 

And the LORD said, "Yes, he has hidden himself among the baggage." They ran and brought him out, and as he stood among the people he was a head taller than any of the others.

 

Suddenly shy Saul hides among the luggage! Saul is not eager to be king and has no ambitions for power at this time.

1 Samuel 10:24-27, "Long live the king!"

Samuel said to all the people, "Do you see the man the LORD has chosen? There is no one like him among all the people." 

Then the people shouted, "Long live the king!"

Samuel explained to the people the regulations of the kingship. He wrote them down on a scroll and deposited it before the LORD. Then Samuel dismissed the people, each to his own home.

Saul also went to his home in Gibeah, accompanied by valiant men whose hearts God had touched. But some troublemakers said, "How can this fellow save us?" They despised him and brought him no gifts. But Saul kept silent.

Saul is introduced as king and Samuel writes down basic regulations regarding kingship within the covenant of God.  These regulations are written on a scroll (made of papyrus or sheepskin) and most likely placed in the ark.  

Most of the people are exciting and enthusiastic to have a king introduced to them.  But there are always scoffers and trolls.

First published August 2, 2023; updated August 1, 2026

I Samuel 9, Saul, Son of Kish

The people of Israel want a king. YHWH has given a reluctant Samuel approval to seek out a king.

1 Samuel 9:1-5, Saul hunts for donkeys

There was a Benjamite, a man of standing, whose name was Kish son of Abiel, the son of Zeror, the son of Becorath, the son of Aphiah of Benjamin. He had a son named Saul, an impressive young man without equal among the Israelites--a head taller than any of the others.

Now the donkeys belonging to Saul's father Kish were lost, and Kish said to his son Saul, "Take one of the servants with you and go and look for the donkeys." So he passed through the hill country of Ephraim and through the area around Shalisha, but they did not find them. They went on into the district of Shaalim, but the donkeys were not there. Then he passed through the territory of Benjamin, but they did not find them. When they reached the district of Zuph, Saul said to the servant who was with him, "Come, let's go back, or my father will stop thinking about the donkeys and start worrying about us."

 

Kish has a long genealogy, showing that his family are true Israelites. The description of Kish as a man of standing echoes the description of Boaz in Ruth 2. Kish is known and respected. His son, Saul, is also impressive, being physically taller than other men.

A search for lost donkeys will take Saul near to Samuel.

1 Samuel 9:6-10, Let's talk to the prophet

But the servant replied, "Look, in this town there is a man of God; he is highly respected, and everything he says comes true. Let's go there now. Perhaps he will tell us what way to take." 

Saul said to his servant, "If we go, what can we give the man? The food in our sacks is gone. We have no gift to take to the man of God. What do we have?"

The servant answered him again. "Look," he said, "I have a quarter of a shekel of silver. I will give it to the man of God so that he will tell us what way to take." (Formerly in Israel, if a man went to inquire of God, he would say, "Come, let us go to the seer," because the prophet of today used to be called a seer.)

"Good," Saul said to his servant. "Come, let's go." So they set out for the town where the man of God was.

The servant suggests visiting Samuel. The servant is willing to use a piece of silver as a gift.

We have a historical comment from the author regarding the terms used in ages past, showing some distance between the author and the time of this event.

1 Samuel 9:11-14, Girls give direction

As they were going up the hill to the town, they met some girls coming out to draw water, and they asked them, "Is the seer here?"

"He is," they answered. "He's ahead of you. Hurry now; he has just come to our town today, for the people have a sacrifice at the high place. As soon as you enter the town, you will find him before he goes up to the high place to eat. The people will not begin eating until he comes, because he must bless the sacrifice; afterward, those who are invited will eat. Go up now; you should find him about this time."

They went up to the town, and as they were entering it, there was Samuel, coming toward them on his way up to the high place.

Some girls in the community tell Saul and his servant how to find Samuel. The town has a "high place", a hilltop where people apparently make sacrifices to YHWH. (This fits the Canaanite culture in that the people worshipe their local god(s) at the top of a hill, at a nearby "high place." Later Israelite worship will move to the tabernacle and then to the temple, but at this time, Israel still seems to have the worship practices we saw in Judges. And meanwhile, the ark still resides in Kiriath Jearim.)

1 Samuel 9:15-17, Samuel alerted

Now the day before Saul came, the LORD had revealed this to Samuel: "About this time tomorrow I will send you a man from the land of Benjamin. Anoint him leader over my people Israel; he will deliver my people from the hand of the Philistines. I have looked upon my people, for their cry has reached me."

When Samuel caught sight of Saul, the LORD said to him, "This is the man I spoke to you about; he will govern my people."

 

YHWH has been planning this! Our author provides a flashback to the day before, when Samuel was alerted to look for Saul.

1 Samuel 9:18-21, Samuel greets Saul

Saul approached Samuel in the gateway and asked, "Would you please tell me where the seer's house is?"

"I am the seer," Samuel replied. "Go up ahead of me to the high place, for today you are to eat with me, and in the morning I will let you go and will tell you all that is in your heart. As for the donkeys you lost three days ago, do not worry about them; they have been found. And to whom is all the desire of Israel turned, if not to you and all your father's family?"

Saul answered, "But am I not a Benjamite, from the smallest tribe of Israel, and is not my clan the least of all the clans of the tribe of Benjamin? Why do you say such a thing to me?"

Samuel greets Saul, tells him the result of his search for donkeys and alerts Saul to something greater. Saul responds with confusion and humility -- how can all Israel be interested in him when his clan is a small clan inside a small tribe. The tribe of Benjamin is small because of many Benjamites were killed after the the rape of the concubine in Gibeah years before (Judges 19.) Saul, himself, is from Gibeah (1 Samuel 20: 26.)

1 Samuel 9:22-24, A leg of meat

Then Samuel brought Saul and his servant into the hall and seated them at the head of those who were invited--about thirty in number. Samuel said to the cook, "Bring the piece of meat I gave you, the one I told you to lay aside."

So the cook took up the leg with what was on it and set it in front of Saul. 

Samuel said, "Here is what has been kept for you. Eat, because it was set aside for you for this occasion, from the time I said, `I have invited guests.'" And Saul dined with Samuel that day.

Saul gives Samuel the best of the meat. (The meat set aside by Samuel was likely the priest's portion from the sacrifice.) After this, Samuel will get Saul and his servant to stay the night.

1 Samuel 9:25-27, Stay for a message from God

After they came down from the high place to the town, Samuel talked with Saul on the roof of his house. They rose about daybreak and Samuel called to Saul on the roof, "Get ready, and I will send you on your way." When Saul got ready, he and Samuel went outside together.

As they were going down to the edge of the town, Samuel said to Saul, "Tell the servant to go on ahead of us"--and the servant did so--"but you stay here awhile, so that I may give you a message from God."

The next morning, Samuel sends the servant on and tells Saul to stay behind, for a message from God. This important message will be the main event of the next chapter.

First published August 1, 2023; updated July 31, 2026

I Samuel 8, "Give Us a King!"

Samuel has now been judging Israel for some time.

1 Samuel 8:1-3, Samuel's sons are immoral

When Samuel grew old, he appointed his sons as judges for Israel. The name of his firstborn was Joel and the name of his second was Abijah, and they served at Beersheba. But his sons did not walk in his ways. They turned aside after dishonest gain and accepted bribes and perverted justice.

Considerable time has passed. Samuel now has the same problem Eli did -- his sons act corruptly.  Beersheba is some distance south of Samuel's home at Ramah.

One sign of a monarchy is that rule is inherited, passed on to sons. We saw this in Judges 8:29-31 when Gideon, asked to become king, declined the offer but then began, himself, to act like a king. Later, his son Abimeleck ("my father is king") attempted to reign in Israel. Judges 9 describes the short and bloody reign of Abimeleck. Here Samuel has appointed his own sons as "judges", even though they are corrupt. It should not be too surprising that the people want a more formal monarchy, with significant military power to protect them from the Philistines and Ammonites.

1 Samuel 8:4-6, Elders ask for a king

So all the elders of Israel gathered together and came to Samuel at Ramah. They said to him, "You are old, and your sons do not walk in your ways; now appoint a king to lead us, such as all the other nations have." 

But when they said, "Give us a king to lead us," this displeased Samuel; so he prayed to the LORD.

These elders are presumably older, respected men of the various tribes. The Israelites want a king, just like the other nations have! This request displeases Samuel. There are certainly problems with the request (the desire to be like "all the other nations") but Samuel may also be unhappy that his own monarchy is being rejected.

1 Samuel 8:7-9, God gives permission

And the LORD told him: "Listen to all that the people are saying to you; it is not you they have rejected, but they have rejected me as their king. As they have done from the day I brought them up out of Egypt until this day, forsaking me and serving other gods, so they are doing to you. Now listen to them; but warn them solemnly and let them know what the king who will reign over them will do."

YHWH says, "They have had me as king, if they wanted. It is not you they are rejecting." This answer is a surprise to Samuel. God seems to be allowing the people to work out a kingship, even if the people's desire is not reasonable.

1 Samuel 8:11-18, The problem with a king

Samuel told all the words of the LORD to the people who were asking him for a king. 

He said, "This is what the king who will reign over you will do: He will take your sons and make them serve with his chariots and horses, and they will run in front of his chariots. Some he will assign to be commanders of thousands and commanders of fifties, and others to plow his ground and reap his harvest, and still others to make weapons of war and equipment for his chariots. He will take your daughters to be perfumers and cooks and bakers. He will take the best of your fields and vineyards and olive groves and give them to his attendants. He will take a tenth of your grain and of your vintage and give it to his officials and attendants. Your menservants and maidservants and the best of your cattle and donkeys he will take for his own use. He will take a tenth of your flocks, and you yourselves will become his slaves. When that day comes, you will cry out for relief from the king you have chosen, and the LORD will not answer you in that day."

(NIV footnotes: in verse 16, the Septuagint has "young men" in place of "cattle".  A number of translators have pointed out that "young men" does not fit that sentence and may be a misplaced word. The "cattle" of the MT is probably correct.)

Samuel attempts to explain the difference between a monarchy and the relaxed system of government they have been using (a "theocracy" with judges?  a patriarchal tribal system?)  But the monarchy is the more "modern" way to go in the ancient Near East.

Some of this doesn't sound too bad -- I can imagine some of the elders thinking, "My son will be a commander of thousands," and not thinking about their sons simply being drafted into the ranks of the army. But Samuel does end with the mention of slavery.

Robert Alter, in his study of 1 and 2 Samuel, portrays a grumpy rejected Samuel attempting to slow down the march to a monarchy. Youngblood, in his commentary, makes similar comments. The motives of our last judge are not necessarily pure.

1 Samuel 8:19-22, The people insist

But the people refused to listen to Samuel. "No!" they said. "We want a king over us. Then we will be like all the other nations, with a king to lead us and to go out before us and fight our battles."

When Samuel heard all that the people said, he repeated it before the LORD.

The LORD answered, "Listen to them and give them a king." 

Then Samuel said to the men of Israel, "Everyone go back to his town."

The people want a modern system of government! This does make some sense -- it is difficult to compete with organized armies of invaders without a strong central structure.

The people seem to be content to let God and Samuel work out the details! When YHWH says, "give them a king", Samuel dismisses the people.  This process will take time and Samuel is not in a hurry.

First published July 31, 2023; updated July 30, 2026

I Samuel 7, Ebenezer

The ark of Israel has been returned to Israel, to the town of Beth Shemesh. The presence of the ark in Beth Shemesh has killed numerous members of the town. The people of Beth Shemesh have appealed to Kiriath Jearim for help. (Beth Shemesh and Kiriath Jearim would have been a few miles west of Jerusalem near the border of Judah and Benjamin.)

1 Samuel 7:1-2, Return to Kiriath Jearim

So the men of Kiriath Jearim came and took up the ark of the LORD. They took it to Abinadab's house on the hill and consecrated Eleazar his son to guard the ark of the LORD. It was a long time, twenty years in all, that the ark remained at Kiriath Jearim, and all the people of Israel mourned and sought after the LORD.

The ark is collected by the people of Kiriath Jearim. The people of Kiriath Jearim consecrate a priest to guard the ark but are otherwise afraid to move the ark. The ark then rests at Kiriath Jearim for twenty years.

The people "mourn" and "seek after YHWH". It is not clear if this is because the Philistines continue to oppress the Israelites or, possibly, because the ark is not in the tabernacle where it was to belong.

1 Samuel 7:3-6, Samuel as leader

And Samuel said to the whole house of Israel, "If you are returning to the LORD with all your hearts, then rid yourselves of the foreign gods and the Ashtoreths and commit yourselves to the LORD and serve him only, and he will deliver you out of the hand of the Philistines."

So the Israelites put away their Baals and Ashtoreths, and served the LORD only.

Then Samuel said, "Assemble all Israel at Mizpah and I will intercede with the LORD for you."

When they had assembled at Mizpah, they drew water and poured it out before the LORD. On that day they fasted and there they confessed, "We have sinned against the LORD." And Samuel was leader of Israel at Mizpah.

Samuel calls the people to renew their commitment to YHWH, giving up the fertility gods favored by the surrounding Canaanite cultures. The people agree to Samuel's request. They later assemble at Mizpah for a renewal meeting and "pour out" water before YHWH. (The act of pouring out water is clearly an act of contrition but apparently does not appear elsewhere in the Old Testament.)

1 Samuel 7:7-11, The Philistines invade

When the Philistines heard that Israel had assembled at Mizpah, the rulers of the Philistines came up to attack them. And when the Israelites heard of it, they were afraid because of the Philistines. They said to Samuel, "Do not stop crying out to the LORD our God for us, that he may rescue us from the hand of the Philistines."

 

Then Samuel took a suckling lamb and offered it up as a whole burnt offering to the LORD. He cried out to the LORD on Israel's behalf, and the LORD answered him. While Samuel was sacrificing the burnt offering, the Philistines drew near to engage Israel in battle. But that day the LORD thundered with loud thunder against the Philistines and threw them into such a panic that they were routed before the Israelites. The men of Israel rushed out of Mizpah and pursued the Philistines, slaughtering them along the way to a point below Beth Car.

The Philistines, upon hearing that Israel has gathered enmasse at Mizpah, fear an attack and bring their own army to attack the Israelites. The people of Israel plead to Samuel to intervene with God and protect them. The plea to YHWH is answered. In a dramatic thunderstorm, the Philistines flee and the Israelites pursue them, destroying them in the chaos.

1 Samuel 7:12, Ebenezer

Then Samuel took a stone and set it up between Mizpah and Shen. He named it Ebenezer, saying, "Thus far has the LORD helped us."

As has happened in other times, a stone (or a pile of stones, see Joshua 4:1-9) is set up as a visible memorial.  

"Ebenezer" means "stone of help." The old hymn Come Thou Fount of Every Blessing has a stanza which begins "Here I raise my Ebenezer, here by Thy great help I've come...." That hymn remembers this memorable event in early Israel, a time when YHWH answered the pleas of the people and gave them victory. (I suspect that hymn has been sung by many who do not know what an Ebenezer is!  😉 )

1 Samuel 7:13-14, Peace

So the Philistines were subdued and did not invade Israelite territory again. Throughout Samuel's lifetime, the hand of the LORD was against the Philistines. The towns from Ekron to Gath that the Philistines had captured from Israel were restored to her, and Israel delivered the neighboring territory from the power of the Philistines. And there was peace between Israel and the Amorites.

The Israelites then begin to regain towns lost to the Philistines. A peace agreement with the Amorites and success over the Philistines gives some semblance of peace to the nation.

1 Samuel 7:15-17, Circuit rider

Samuel continued as judge over Israel all the days of his life. From year to year he went on a circuit from Bethel to Gilgal to Mizpah, judging Israel in all those places. But he always went back to Ramah, where his home was, and there he also judged Israel. And he built an altar there to the LORD.

Samuel judges Israel as a circuit rider, moving throughout the region and then returning home to Ramah.  Samuel's parents were from Ramathaim, probably the same region.

First published July 29, 2023; updated July 29, 2026

I Samuel 6, The Ark Returns

The Philistines have captured the ark of YHWH, God of Israel. It has not gone well for them.

1 Samuel 6:1-4a, Philistines make plans to return the ark

When the ark of the LORD had been in Philistine territory seven months, the Philistines called for the priests and the diviners and said, "What shall we do with the ark of the LORD? Tell us how we should send it back to its place."

They answered, "If you return the ark of the god of Israel, do not send it away empty, but by all means send a guilt offering to him. Then you will be healed, and you will know why his hand has not been lifted from you."

The Philistines asked, "What guilt offering should we send to him?" 

The Philistines want to get rid of the ark, returning it to Israel. The Philistine priests urge them to return the ark with some gifts, as a sign of submission.

1 Samuel 6:4b-6, Golden images of the plagues

They replied, "Five gold tumors and five gold rats, according to the number of the Philistine rulers, because the same plague has struck both you and your rulers. Make models of the tumors and of the rats that are destroying the country, and pay honor to Israel's god. Perhaps he will lift his hand from you and your gods and your land. Why do you harden your hearts as the Egyptians and Pharaoh did? When he treated them harshly, did they not send the Israelites out so they could go on their way?

Here we first learn (in the Masoretic text) of the plague of rats. Rats, death and tumors (buboes) all describe bubonic plague.

The Philistine priests suggest that the gifts include gold items molded in the images of the plagues, a statement of the ills they hope will be abolished.

1 Samuel 6:7-9, Philistines make plans to return the ark

"Now then, get a new cart ready, with two cows that have calved and have never been yoked. Hitch the cows to the cart, but take their calves away and pen them up. Take the ark of the LORD and put it on the cart, and in a chest beside it put the gold objects you are sending back to him as a guilt offering. Send it on its way, but keep watching it. If it goes up to its own territory, toward Beth Shemesh, then the LORD has brought this great disaster on us. But if it does not, then we will know that it was not his hand that struck us and that it happened to us by chance."

The ark is to be returned by wandering oxen. The cows, like the cart, are to be brand new to their work, never used before. (This is an indication of honor and respect.) The cows have calves (more on that in the next passage) and are to be hooked to the cart carrying the ark and then set free. The Philistines will then watch what happens.  

In modern terms, this is an experiment. If the cows, who have never left home, take the ark to Israel, it will mean that the God of the Israelites is in charge.

1 Samuel 6:10-12, The ark leaves Philistia

So they did this. They took two such cows and hitched them to the cart and penned up their calves. They placed the ark of the LORD on the cart and along with it the chest containing the gold rats and the models of the tumors. Then the cows went straight up toward Beth Shemesh, keeping on the road and lowing all the way; they did not turn to the right or to the left. The rulers of the Philistines followed them as far as the border of Beth Shemesh.

The cows, with their calves penned up in Philistia, will desire to feed their newborns. But in this case, they aim straight for Beth Shemesh in Israel, lowing as they go. The steady mooing of the cows may indicate their desire to return to their calves; one has an image of the cows being driven, unhappily, by an unseen force.

1 Samuel 6:13-16, The ark rests at Beth Shemesh

Now the people of Beth Shemesh were harvesting their wheat in the valley, and when they looked up and saw the ark, they rejoiced at the sight. The cart came to the field of Joshua of Beth Shemesh, and there it stopped beside a large rock. The people chopped up the wood of the cart and sacrificed the cows as a burnt offering to the LORD.

The Levites took down the ark of the LORD, together with the chest containing the gold objects, and placed them on the large rock. On that day the people of Beth Shemesh offered burnt offerings and made sacrifices to the LORD.

The five rulers of the Philistines saw all this and then returned that same day to Ekron.

When the ark arrives in Beth Shemesh in Israel, the cows, and cart that got it there, are sacrificed to YHWH. The golden emblems are collected. The five city overlords observe the process and go home.

1 Samuel 6:17-18, Golden items described

These are the gold tumors the Philistines sent as a guilt offering to the LORD--one each for Ashdod, Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath and Ekron. And the number of the gold rats was according to the number of Philistine towns belonging to the five rulers--the fortified towns with their country villages. The large rock, on which they set the ark of the LORD, is a witness to this day in the field of Joshua of Beth Shemesh.

The narrator repeats the statements about five gold "tumors", one for each prominent city.  The number of gold images of rats is apparently more than five, one for each of the smaller towns in Philistine.

The people of Beth Shemesh celebrate. The narrator points out that (in his day) one could go visit the big rock that served as the pedestal for the ark.

1 Samuel 6:19-21, Death in Beth Shemesh

But God struck down some of the men of Beth Shemesh, putting seventy of them to death because they had looked into the ark of the LORD. The people mourned because of the heavy blow the LORD had dealt them,and the men of Beth Shemesh asked, "Who can stand in the presence of the LORD, this holy God? To whom will the ark go up from here?"

Then they sent messengers to the people of Kiriath Jearim, saying, "The Philistines have returned the ark of the LORD. Come down and take it up to your place."

Many of the people of Beth Shemesh are struck down for "looking into" the ark. The ark, whether in Philistia or Israel, is a very dangerous item.

Ancient Hebrew manuscripts have significant conflicts about the number, in verse 19, of people who died in Beth Shemesh. Some Hebrew manuscripts give the number slain as 70 but most Hebrew manuscripts and the Septuagint give 50,070 slain instead of 70.Was it 70? Or 50,070? The Jewish historian Josephus, in the first century AD, apparently had access to a manuscript that had the number as 70, so that number is quite old. The small town of Beth Shemesh might have had a population in the hundreds; there could not have been 50,070 people in the town of Beth Shemesh! This is one more example of conflict and confusion about these Old Testament numbers. (I've summarized the various opinions in a post on The Problem of Large Numbers in the Old Testament.)

First published July 28, 2023; updated July 28, 2026

I Samuel 5, YHWH vs. Dagon

The Philistines have defeated the Israelites in battle and captured the ark of the covenant. The news kills the priest Eli. Now the ark lies in Philistine hands.

1 Samuel 5:1-5, Dagon face down

After the Philistines had captured the ark of God, they took it from Ebenezer to Ashdod.  Then they carried the ark into Dagon's temple and set it beside Dagon. 

When the people of Ashdod rose early the next day, there was Dagon, fallen on his face on the ground before the ark of the LORD! They took Dagon and put him back in his place.  

But the following morning when they rose, there was Dagon, fallen on his face on the ground before the ark of the LORD! His head and hands had been broken off and were lying on the threshold; only his body remained. That is why to this day neither the priests of Dagon nor any others who enter Dagon's temple at Ashdod step on the threshold.

Dagon was probably a fertility god linked to grain harvests (say both Alter and Youngblood.)

The ark is carried as a trophy into the temple of Dagon. But the presence of the ark in Dagon's temple means that the idol of Dagon keeps being knocked down and put in a subservient posture. This makes a point that the priests of Dagon find hard to miss! (The first time this occurs, the idol is just tipped over. But after being righted, the idol is then tipped over and its head and hands have been cut off!)

The phrase "to this day" presumably refers to the later time of the writer of 1 Samuel.

1 Samuel 5:6-8a, Devastation in the path of the ark

The LORD's hand was heavy upon the people of Ashdod and its vicinity; he brought devastation upon them and afflicted them with tumors. When the men of Ashdod saw what was happening, they said, "The ark of the god of Israel must not stay here with us, because his hand is heavy upon us and upon Dagon our god." 

So they called together all the rulers of the Philistines and asked them, "What shall we do with the ark of the god of Israel?" 

They answered, "Have the ark of the god of Israel moved to Gath." 

Devastation -- skin tumors, in particular -- hit the people of Ashdod. The people of Ashdod don't want the ark and so have it moved.

NIV Footnotes: In verse 6, the Septuagint and Vulgate add a phase about rats appearing in the land. We will see in the next chapter that there was also a plague of rats.

1 Samuel 5:8b-12, Continued affliction

So they moved the ark of the God of Israel.  But after they had moved it, the LORD's hand was against that city, throwing it into a great panic. He afflicted the people of the city, both young and old, with an outbreak of tumors. 

The people of Gath experience the same plague(s).

1 Samuel 5:10-12, Send it to Israel!

So they sent the ark of God to Ekron. As the ark of God was entering Ekron, the people of Ekron cried out, "They have brought the ark of the god of Israel around to us to kill us and our people."  

So they called together all the rulers of the Philistines and said, "Send the ark of the god of Israel away; let it go back to its own place, or it will kill us and our people." For death had filled the city with panic; God's hand was very heavy upon it. Those who did not die were afflicted with tumors, and the outcry of the city went up to heaven.

And now the people of Ekron are inflicted.  (Some manuscripts imply that the tumors may have been in the groin.)  The solution is to send the ark back to Israel.

Both Robert Alter and Ronald Youngblood, in their commentaries, suggest that a plague that involves rats, that is deadly, and that creates "tumors" (buboes?), accurately describes the bubonic plague.

First published July 27, 2023; updated July 27, 2026