Who Wrote the Torah?

Who wrote the Torah?

In Exodus 20, we read of the Law being given by YHWH to Moses.  But who wrote the Torah, the so-called Five Books of Moses? Tradition has that, like the law, all of it was written by Moses. But the author is not identified in Scripture and there are numerous opinions, some traditional, some relatively new (that is, within the last two centuries.)

The Five Books of Moses, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, were named in Greek, The Pentateuch (which means "five books".) The term "Book of the Law of Moses" appears in Joshua 8:31-32, but it is not clear what is meant there -- surely it is not the full Five Books? The same term appears in Joshua 23:6. Although the Law is given at Mt. Sinai to Moses, it is not clear if he wrote additional material. And at the end of the book of Deuteronomy we read of the death and burial of Moses. The Talmud taught that that final paragraph was added by Joshua.

Those of us who believe the Torah is Scripture have no obligation to believe the traditional statements that surround this question. There is evidence of some editing done at a later stage, possibly when the five books were brought together to present to Israel. Without appealing to Hebrew, one can see hints of this -- beyond the paragraph on the death of Moses -- when, in Genesis 34:7, the author (or editor?) write "Shechem had done an outrageous thing in Israel ... a thing that should not be done."  The phrase, "in Israel", which I have put in italics, jumps out as a statement about a nation, not a family. The author/editor says, in Genesis 36:31, in describing the descendants of Esau, "These were the kings who reigned in Edom before any Israelite king reigned." The writer seems aware of kings reigning in Israel, a comment presumably made by someone at least as late as Samuel or David.

There are numerous places in the Five Books in which an appeal is made to something that "remains to today." The tomb of Rachel, mentioned in Genesis 35:20 is one of many examples.  The author knew of the locations of these places (such as Rachel's tomb) and so seems relatively close to her time. This could have been written by Joshua or Samuel, some centuries later, for example. (Later Old Testament books will have similar statements, displaying the authors' expectations of readers, at the time of the writing.)

For one viewpoint on the authorship of the Torah, see this online article: Who Wrote the Torah According to the Torah?

The Documentary Hypothesis

Read any commentary on one of these five books and at some point you will be introduced to the more "modern" Documentary Hypothesis for the Pentateuch. The documentary hypothesis, dating from the late nineteenth century, claims that the Pentateuch has four independent sources.  Two of the sources are distinguished by their name for God: the J (Jehovah) document uses YHWH as the name for God while the E (Elohim) source uses Elohim, the more generic Hebrew word for "God". As we read through the Five Books, we will see that Deuteronomy repeats significant parts of the earlier books and so the documentary hypothesis claims a third writer, D, writing much of Deuteronomy. A fourth writer, P, from the Priestly class, supposedly focuses more on the liturgy and ritual of ceremonies and sacrifices. The Five Books were then supposedly put together by editors ("redactors") into a common Hebrew manuscript.

The arguments for the Documentary Hypothesis often lean on subtleties in Hebrew words, subtleties in the word usage in one passage as opposed to the word usage in another. Although I do not read Hebrew, I recognize in this discussion -- from my life as a university professor -- the scholarly desire to pick apart any concept, at times ad nauseum, in a sequence of papers or doctoral dissertations. In some places this can be very beneficial. (I love Hubbard's discussion of the word hesed in his commentary on Ruth and Ime's discussion of YHWH's name in her class on Exodus!)  In other places, conjecture spirals into more conjecture, without clear insight (at least to me.)  

The Wikipedia article on the Documentary Hypothesis (see link above) claims that this view has now collapsed and that there are a number of more recent viewpoints on how the Five Books came together, either as an original coherent document with a little bit of editing, or as a number of documents compiled by an editor. Robert Alter (not a Christian, but a Jewish scholar) attacks the Documentary Hypothesis because, in his opinion, the Hebrew text shows more coherence than that hypothesis admits.

Authors and editors

The question, "Who wrote the Torah?" can easily be expanded to all of the Old Testament. Who wrote the book of Ruth? Who wrote The Psalms? The Psalms show very clear evidence of compilation and editing; many editorial notes appear in the text of a psalm, just before the first verse.  

Similar questions arise in the New Testament -- the clearest example, requiring no knowledge of Greek, is the case of the first three Gospels, the Synoptic Gospels, presumably relying on a common source before they were written down. John, in his Gospel, is aware of either that common source or (more likely) one of the other gospels, for he writes down important episodes that the first three writers left out!  Ah, but I digress ... let me return to the Old Testament...

Pointer to Messiah

I find all of the questions interesting but not deeply significant.  I have no obligation to support any particular viewpoint on Pentateuch authorship and the text does not make a claim.  I do intend to read the Old Testament with at least as much respect as I would give any historical document, that is, I assume it is relatively coherent and is a source for our understanding of historical events. As a Christian, I assume that YHWH has, in these documents, a message for His People, using the Torah and later writings to point to the Jewish Messiah, Yeshua.  With that expectation, I find the writings moving and powerful ... and humbling.  I am immensely enjoying my study in the Old Testament!

First published Feb 6, 2023; updated Feb 15, 2026

Genesis 39, Joseph in Potiphar's House

After the brief interlude about Judah and Tamar, we return to the story of Joseph. The last 12 chapters of Genesis will describe the events that led the clan of Israel into Egypt. As our story of humanity focuses on a single man and his actions, we get considerable dialogue.

Genesis 39:1-6a, Joseph in Potiphar's house
Now Joseph had been taken down to Egypt. Potiphar, an Egyptian who was one of Pharaoh's officials, the captain of the guard, bought him from the Ishmaelites who had taken him there.

The LORD was with Joseph and he prospered, and he lived in the house of his Egyptian master. When his master saw that the LORD was with him and that the LORD gave him success in everything he did,

Joseph found favor in his eyes and became his attendant. Potiphar put him in charge of his household, and he entrusted to his care everything he owned. From the time he put him in charge of his household and of all that he owned, the LORD blessed the household of the Egyptian because of Joseph. The blessing of the LORD was on everything Potiphar had, both in the house and in the field. So he left in Joseph's care everything he had; with Joseph in charge, he did not concern himself with anything except the food he ate. 

God blesses Joseph and his talents are recognized. As God blesses Jacob, the blessing extends to his Egyptian master.

Genesis 39:6b-10, Attempted seduction
Now Joseph was well-built and handsome, and after a while his master's wife took notice of Joseph and said, "Come to bed with me!"

But he refused. "With me in charge," he told her, "my master does not concern himself with anything in the house; everything he owns he has entrusted to my care. No one is greater in this house than I am. My master has withheld nothing from me except you, because you are his wife. How then could I do such a wicked thing and sin against God?"

And though she spoke to Joseph day after day, he refused to go to bed with her or even be with her.

But Potiphar's wife lusts after Joseph and tries to seduce him. Joseph declines, citing the trust Potiphar has placed upon him. Joseph's focus is on integrity.

Genesis 39:11-15, Sex refused
One day he went into the house to attend to his duties, and none of the household servants was inside.  She caught him by his cloak and said, "Come to bed with me!" But he left his cloak in her hand and ran out of the house.

When she saw that he had left his cloak in her hand and had run out of the house, she called her household servants. "Look," she said to them, "this Hebrew has been brought to us to make sport of us! He came in here to sleep with me, but I screamed. When he heard me scream for help, he left his cloak beside me and ran out of the house."

A final refusal sets off a cry of attempted rape. The wife's complaint to the servants has a primary accusation of sexual assault but hints at a secondary complaint about her husband's choices, that her husband has brought a foreigner to take advantage of the wife and household staff.

Genesis 39:16-19, Falsely accused
She kept his cloak beside her until his master came home. Then she told him this story: "That Hebrew slave you brought us came to me to make sport of me. But as soon as I screamed for help, he left his cloak beside me and ran out of the house."

When his master heard the story his wife told him, saying, "This is how your slave treated me," he burned with anger.

Potiphar believes his wife's accusation. Note that she blames him for allowing the incident. He hired "that Hebrew"!

Genesis 39:20-23, Prison!
Joseph's master took him and put him in prison, the place where the king's prisoners were confined. 

But while Joseph was there in the prison, the LORD was with him; he showed him kindness and granted him favor in the eyes of the prison warden. So the warden put Joseph in charge of all those held in the prison, and he was made responsible for all that was done there. The warden paid no attention to anything under Joseph's care, because the LORD was with Joseph and gave him success in whatever he did.

And so Joseph is imprisoned. (Potiphar's wife's accusation might have led to the execution of Joseph. The fact that Joseph is imprisoned, not executed, may suggest that Potiphar had some doubts about his wife's accusations.)

Even in prison, the talents of Joseph are recognized and people benefit by his stewardship. God has a long-term plan for Joseph, a plan stretching across more than a decade.

This chapter displays an Old Testament technique of inclusio (set of bookends). The story of Potiphar's wife is set off by these statements at the beginning and end of the chapter:

The Lord was with Joseph ... the Lord was with him and ... gave him success in everything he did,

and

 the Lord was with him...  the Lord was with Joseph and gave him success in whatever he did.

These bookends set aside the episode of Potiphar's wife from the rest of the Genesis scroll and provides a counterpoint to the abuse and defeat Joseph appears to be suffering.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is the name Ibri

עִבְרִי

translated "Hebrew". This is the second time in Genesis that this term appears. (It is earlier used to identify Abraham in Genesis 14:13.) In this chapter the word is used by Potifar's wife as an insult. Later we will learn (Genesis 43:32) that the Egyptians found it detestable to eat with Hebrews.

Some Random Thoughts

The ministry of Joseph is marked throughout with integrity. He is a capable administrator and when propositioned, responds with a statement about his duty to Potiphar. The character of Joseph (supported by God's intervention) eventually leads Joseph to a position of prestige.

First published Feb 15, 2023; updated Feb 14, 2026

Genesis 38, Tamar

Jacob has been sold to Egypt. We will soon return to his story but we must first look at a strange event involving Judah.

This is a fascinating chapter of sex, children, struggles and conflicts over inheritance and progeny. It gives insight into the ancient Near East culture, a culture very different from our modern world. In it we follow the life of Judah, eventual father of an Israelite tribe that will include David ... and Jesus.

Genesis 38:1-5, Judah marries a Canaanite woman

At that time, Judah left his brothers and went down to stay with a man of Adullam named Hirah.  There Judah met the daughter of a Canaanite man named Shua. He married her and lay with her; she became pregnant and gave birth to a son, who was named Er. She conceived again and gave birth to a son and named him Onan. She gave birth to still another son and named him Shelah. It was at Kezib that she gave birth to him.

In quick succession, this passage tells of three sons born to Judah: Er, Onan and Shelah. This story covers several decades and so probably includes time prior to the trafficking of Joseph.

Recall that Rebekah was not happy that Ishmael married Canaanites, a people that were known for their idolatry.

Genesis 38:6-10, Onan's sin

Judah got a wife for Er, his firstborn, and her name was Tamar. But Er, Judah's firstborn, was wicked in the LORD's sight; so the LORD put him to death. 

Then Judah said to Onan, "Lie with your brother's wife and fulfill your duty to her as a brother-in-law to produce offspring for your brother."

But Onan knew that the offspring would not be his; so whenever he lay with his brother's wife, he spilled his semen on the ground to keep from producing offspring for his brother. What he did was wicked in the LORD's sight; so he put him to death also.

We don't know the wickedness of Er, but the wickedness of Onan is to refuse responsibility for extending his older brother's lineage.  The church has long used this passage to condemn male masturbation but that completely ignores the text and context. Onan is practicing "coitus interruptus", not allowing his semen into Tamar. He has the pleasure and release of sex while avoiding the cultural responsibility that put him in Tamar's bed.

John Walton, in his commentary on Genesis, points out that Onan had much to lose by siring a son through Tamar.  Since Er was the firstborn, the birthright would go to Er and his descendants. (Recall Esau and Jacob's fight over he birthright!) But if Er has no sons, then the birthright passes on to Onan. However, any children of Tamar, Er's widow, fall in the line of Er and so the birthright would divert to them, not Onan. By siring sons with Tamar, Onan loses the birthright.

Genesis 38:11, Dismissal of Tamar

Judah then said to his daughter-in-law Tamar, "Live as a widow in your father's house until my son Shelah grows up." For he thought, "He may die too, just like his brothers." So Tamar went to live in her father's house.

Tamar stays with her own father and waits for a much later opportunity to have children and a lineage. Shelah is the youngest of the three sons and so expecting him to marry Tamar in time to give her a child seems a bit unreasonable.

Genesis 38:13-14, Death of Shua, scheme of Tamar

After a long time Judah's wife, the daughter of Shua, died. When Judah had recovered from his grief, he went up to Timnah, to the men who were shearing his sheep, and his friend Hirah the Adullamite went with him.

When Tamar was told, "Your father-in-law is on his way to Timnah to shear his sheep," she took off her widow's clothes, covered herself with a veil to disguise herself, and then sat down at the entrance to Enaim, which is on the road to Timnah. For she saw that, though Shelah had now grown up, she had not been given to him as his wife.

Tamar learns that Judah has lost a wife and is headed off to sheep-shearing. Alter suggests that the time of sheep-shearing would have included some feasting and some drunken partying. Tamar sees an opportunity to intervene and have a child, to have descendants.  

Genesis 38:15-18, Judah impregnates Tamar

When Judah saw her, he thought she was a prostitute, for she had covered her face. Not realizing that she was his daughter-in-law, he went over to her by the roadside and said, "Come now, let me sleep with you." 

"And what will you give me to sleep with you?" she asked.

"I'll send you a young goat from my flock," he said. 

"Will you give me something as a pledge until you send it?" she asked.

He said, "What pledge should I give you?" 

"Your seal and its cord, and the staff in your hand," she answered. 

So he gave them to her and slept with her, and she became pregnant by him.

Apparently a sign of prostitution, in that culture, was to wear a veil. (The veil may represent cultic identification with the bride of a fertility god, such as Baal.) The veil helps Tamar stay anonymous. Tamar is dressed this way for only Judah and they negotiate a price for her body.

Walton claims that in the surrounding Ugaritic culture, if the brother-in-law did not meet the requirements of siring a son with the widow, the father-in-law was obligated to step in. This would not be the custom in later Israel, but it is possible that Tamar believes that that obligation falls to Judah.

Genesis 38:19-23, Tamar disappears

After she left, she took off her veil and put on her widow's clothes again. Meanwhile Judah sent the young goat by his friend the Adullamite in order to get his pledge back from the woman, but he did not find her. He asked the men who lived there, "Where is the shrine prostitute who was beside the road at Enaim?" 

"There hasn't been any shrine prostitute here," they said.

So he went back to Judah and said, "I didn't find her. Besides, the men who lived there said, `There hasn't been any shrine prostitute here.'"

Then Judah said, "Let her keep what she has, or we will become a laughingstock. After all, I did send her this young goat, but you didn't find her."

Note the commonality of shrine prostitutes. Judah views this as just a negotiation poorly completed.

Genesis 38:24-25, Tamar reveals the father

About three months later Judah was told, "Your daughter-in-law Tamar is guilty of prostitution, and as a result she is now pregnant." 

Judah said, "Bring her out and have her burned to death!"

As she was being brought out, she sent a message to her father-in-law. "I am pregnant by the man who owns these," she said. And she added, "See if you recognize whose seal and cord and staff these are."

What a cruel world for women! Judah is willing to step aside for sex with a prostitute but, as the male in charge of Tamar's life, is willing to see her burned.

Genesis 38:26-30, Perez and Zerah
Judah recognized them and said, "She is more righteous than I, since I wouldn't give her to my son Shelah." And he did not sleep with her again.

When the time came for her to give birth, there were twin boys in her womb. As she was giving birth, one of them put out his hand; so the midwife took a scarlet thread and tied it on his wrist and said, "This one came out first."

 But when he drew back his hand, his brother came out, and she said, "So this is how you have broken out!" And he was named Perez. Then his brother, who had the scarlet thread on his wrist, came out and he was given the name Zerah.

Here we learn that Judah never gave Tamar to his son Shelah. 

According to the NIV footnotes, "Perez" means "breaking out" and "Zerah" can mean "scarlet" or "brightness."  This birth echoes the battle of twins, Jacob and Esau in Rebekah's womb.

Judah is no model hero for the Israelites! But, following the customs of the time, Perez, through Tamar, continues the lineage of Judah. That line, the descendants of Perez, will include Boaz, King David and the eventual Messiah, Jesus. 

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is zera

 זֶרַע

a masculine noun meaning "seed." It is used in the Old Testament to not only identify literal seeds but the fruit of seeds such as crops or offspring. Here, in verses 8 and 9, it appears three times as "offspring." Then, in verse 9, "it" is "wasted" on the ground; the implication is that seed (semen) is wasted in Onan's sexual relations with Tamar.

Some Random Thoughts

Patriarchy and birthright undergird this chapter. Onan will not impregnate Tamar because he fears losing the birthright. Tamar's value as a woman relies on her motherhood, which is promised to her and then denied. So she plays the prostitute to regain her chance at motherhood. As she is pregnant with twins, the midwife makes sure to identify the firstborn with a scarlet thread. Later, like Jacob, the lineage of kings will run through Perez, despite the fact he was not the firstborn.

First published Feb 14, 2023; updated Feb 13, 2026

Genesis 37, Dreamer

After a brief interlude to track the descendants of Esau, we return to the story of Jacob/Israel and his sons.

Genesis 37:1-2, Tattle-tail

Jacob lived in the land where his father had stayed, the land of Canaan. This is the account of Jacob. Joseph, a young man of seventeen, was tending the flocks with his brothers, the sons of Bilhah and the sons of Zilpah, his father's wives, and he brought their father a bad report about them.

Teenage Joseph is sure of himself and brings a bad report to Jacob about his adult brothers. (We are not told the substance of the report.) One sees the dispute between Rachel and the other mothers continuing into family strife in the next generation.

Genesis 37:3-4, The coat of many colors                        t 

Now Israel loved Joseph more than any of his other sons, because he had been born to him in his old age; and he made a richly ornamented robe for him. When his brothers saw that their father loved him more than any of them, they hated him and could not speak a kind word to him.

The Hebrew adjective passim (פַּסִּֽים), translated "richly ornamented" is unclear.  Old translations were "multi-colored".  Regardless, the coat was rich, elaborate and distinctive. It represents status (Walton.) Unlike the other ten sons, Joseph is dressed as a manager, not an ordinary laborer.

Genesis 37:5-8, Dream #1 (and boasting)

Joseph had a dream, and when he told it to his brothers, they hated him all the more. He said to them, "Listen to this dream I had: We were binding sheaves of grain out in the field when suddenly my sheaf rose and stood upright, while your sheaves gathered around mine and bowed down to it."

His brothers said to him, "Do you intend to reign over us? Will you actually rule us?" And they hated him all the more because of his dream and what he had said.

With immature enthusiasm, Joseph tells his dream to his brothers.  The brothers' response is to be expected.

Genesis 37:9-11, Dream #2

Then he had another dream, and he told it to his brothers. "Listen," he said, "I had another dream, and this time the sun and moon and eleven stars were bowing down to me."

When he told his father as well as his brothers, his father rebuked him and said, "What is this dream you had? Will your mother and I and your brothers actually come and bow down to the ground before you?" His brothers were jealous of him, but his father kept the matter in mind.

Joseph describes a second dream and receives a reasonable rebuke from his father. The dream borders on blasphemy (says Alter) as no one but YHWH is worthy of worship by the heavenly bodies.

Genesis 37:12-17, Joseph seeks his brothers

Now his brothers had gone to graze their father's flocks near Shechem, and Israel said to Joseph, "As you know, your brothers are grazing the flocks near Shechem. Come, I am going to send you to them." 

"Very well," he replied.

So he said to him, "Go and see if all is well with your brothers and with the flocks, and bring word back to me." Then he sent him off from the Valley of Hebron. 

When Joseph arrived at Shechem, a man found him wandering around in the fields and asked him, "What are you looking for?"

He replied, "I'm looking for my brothers. Can you tell me where they are grazing their flocks?"

"They have moved on from here," the man answered. "I heard them say, `Let's go to Dothan.'" 

So Joseph went after his brothers and found them near Dothan.

Joseph has been sent by his father to find his brothers. Shechem is the place where the brothers massacred a town.  

Genesis 37:18-24, Joseph attacked

But they saw him in the distance, and before he reached them, they plotted to kill him.

"Here comes that dreamer!" they said to each other. "Come now, let's kill him and throw him into one of these cisterns and say that a ferocious animal devoured him. Then we'll see what comes of his dreams."

When Reuben heard this, he tried to rescue him from their hands. "Let's not take his life," he said. "Don't shed any blood. Throw him into this cistern here in the desert, but don't lay a hand on him." Reuben said this to rescue him from them and take him back to his father.

 So when Joseph came to his brothers, they stripped him of his robe--the richly ornamented robe he was wearing--and they took him and threw him into the cistern. Now the cistern was empty; there was no water in it.

The Hebrew word hachalomot  (הַחֲלֹמ֥וֹת) has, at it root, chalom (חֲלוֹם), meaning "dream". It is prefixed by baal (בַּעַל), meaning "master", so that Joseph is being called "dream-master" or "lord of dreams." This is surely a sarcastic term used to mock Joseph's arrogance over his previous two dreams.

That the sons can be violent is not in doubt. They have already been involved in the massacre and looting of Shechem. But Reuben, the firstborn, the one who slept with his father's concubine, Bilhah, intervenes to prevent bloodshed.

Genesis 37:25-28, Sold into slavery

As they sat down to eat their meal, they looked up and saw a caravan of Ishmaelites coming from Gilead. Their camels were loaded with spices, balm and myrrh, and they were on their way to take them down to Egypt.

Judah said to his brothers, "What will we gain if we kill our brother and cover up his blood? Come, let's sell him to the Ishmaelites and not lay our hands on him; after all, he is our brother, our own flesh and blood." His brothers agreed.

So when the Midianite merchants came by, his brothers pulled Joseph up out of the cistern and sold him for twenty shekels of silver to the Ishmaelites, who took him to Egypt.

Judah forestalls the killing of Joseph by suggesting that Joseph be sold to the "Ishmaelites".  (The traders are called Midianites later in this chapter.) According to the NIV footnotes, "twenty shekels" is about 8 ounces.

There is a raw violence and cruelty in the brothers of Joseph. Here we see his life saved by Reuben and Judah, but neither is very likeable. (We will see more of the character of Judah in the next chapter.)

Genesis 37: 28-33, A lie to Jacob

When Reuben returned to the cistern and saw that Joseph was not there, he tore his clothes. He went back to his brothers and said, "The boy isn't there! Where can I turn now?"

Then they got Joseph's robe, slaughtered a goat and dipped the robe in the blood. They took the ornamented robe back to their father and said, "We found this. Examine it to see whether it is your son's robe."

He recognized it and said, "It is my son's robe! Some ferocious animal has devoured him. Joseph has surely been torn to pieces."

The brothers fall back on part of their original plan, pretending that Joseph, wandering alone, looking for his brothers, has been killed by a wild animal. Jacob is devastated. The deceptions he has practiced in his younger years has been passed down to his sons. Jacob used a killed lamb for a meal and a lamb's coat to cover his arms, all in order to deceive his father. His sons kill a goat to bloody the ornamental coat and deceive him.

Genesis 37: 34-36, Jacob devastated

Then Jacob tore his clothes, put on sackcloth and mourned for his son many days. All his sons and daughters came to comfort him, but he refused to be comforted. "No," he said, "in mourning will I go down to the grave to my son." So his father wept for him.

Meanwhile, the Midianites sold Joseph in Egypt to Potiphar, one of Pharaoh's officials, the captain of the guard.

I see hints that Jacob has more than one daughter, although the plural "daughters" could also mean granddaughters.

Fortunately for Jacob, he will later go down, not to the grave, but to Egypt to see his son.

The descriptions of the traders as Ishmaelites and then Midianites is a bit confusing. Midian was a half-brother of Ishmael, born through Keturah.  (According to the NIV footnotes the name "Midianites" in verses 28 and 36 follows the Samaritan Pentateuch, Septuagint, Vulgate and Syriac manuscripts; the Masoretic text has "Medanites.")

The chapter ends on a natural cliff-hanger. What will happen to young Joseph in Egypt?

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is toledot 

תּוֹלְדָה

sometimes translated "generations".  It tends to be a header for a new section in Genesis. In the first verse of this chapter, it announces that we will now focus on the descendants of Jacob.

Some Random Thoughts

From the story of Cain and Abel to the betrayal of Joseph by his brothers, Genesis is full of stories of sibling rivalry and hatred. A Hong Kong writer applies the story of Joseph to siblings today in this essay at Christianity Today. (That article is available in both English and Chinese.)

First published Feb 13, 2023; updated Feb 12, 2026

Genesis 36, Esau

We have wrapped up much of the significant events in Jacob's life and have seen Isaac buried. Before moving on to the life of Jacob's sons, the author records the other family line of Isaac, that of Esau. In the future, the descendants of Jacob, the Israelites, will have numerous encounters with the descendants of Esau. Indeed the short book of Obadiah focuses on that future nation-tribe.

Genesis 36:1-5, Esau's Canaanite wives
This is the account of Esau (that is, Edom). Esau took his wives from the women of Canaan: Adah daughter of Elon the Hittite, and Oholibamah daughter of Anah and granddaughter of Zibeon the Hivite-- also Basemath daughter of Ishmael and sister of Nebaioth.

Adah bore Eliphaz to Esau, Basemath bore Reuel, and Oholibamah bore Jeush, Jalam and Korah. These were the sons of Esau, who were born to him in Canaan.

The word "account" here is the Hebrew toledot (תּוֹלְדָה), sometimes translated "generations".  It tends to set off one portion of Genesis from another. It is used here to complete a discussion of Isaac's descendants by tracing the descendants of Esau before moving on the more important story of Jacob's children.

The first members of Esau's family come from the Canaanite wives, women that Rebekah did not like.

Genesis 36:6-8, Esau settles in Seir

Esau took his wives and sons and daughters and all the members of his household, as well as his livestock and all his other animals and all the goods he had acquired in Canaan, and moved to a land some distance from his brother Jacob. Their possessions were too great for them to remain together; the land where they were staying could not support them both because of their livestock. So Esau (that is, Edom) settled in the hill country of Seir.

The hill country of Seir (including Mount Seir) is south of modern Jerusalem in modern Jordan.

 

Jacob and Esau had too much livestock to be supported by one region.  And they didn't trust each other.  So they had separated.

Genesis 36:9-14, Esau's sons
This is the account of Esau the father of the Edomites in the hill country of Seir. 

These are the names of Esau's sons: Eliphaz, the son of Esau's wife Adah, and Reuel, the son of Esau's wife Basemath. 

The sons of Eliphaz: Teman, Omar, Zepho, Gatam and Kenaz. Esau's son Eliphaz also had a concubine named Timna, who bore him Amalek. These were grandsons of Esau's wife Adah.

The sons of Reuel: Nahath, Zerah, Shammah and Mizzah. These were grandsons of Esau's wife Basemath.

The sons of Esau's wife Oholibamah daughter of Anah and granddaughter of Zibeon, whom she bore to Esau: Jeush, Jalam and Korah.

We trace the lines of Esau's children through three wives, Adah, Basemath and Oholibamah. The Amelekites, descendants of Amalek, will be a perennial enemy of the Israelites. The first battle Moses and Israel face in the Exodus is with the Amelekites (Exodus 17:8-16.)

There is some confusion about the three wives of Esau. In Genesis 26:34-35, 28:8-9, Esau marries two Canaanite women, Judith and Basemath, and then later marries Mahalath, a daughter of Ishmael. But here the three wives are named Adah, Basemath and Oholibamah. The differences in these two accounts is interesting enough to have its own Wikipedia page, Wives of Esau.

Genesis 36:15-19, Chiefs among the grandsons
These were the chiefs among Esau's descendants: The sons of Eliphaz the firstborn of Esau: Chiefs Teman, Omar, Zepho, Kenaz, Korah, Gatam and Amalek. These were the chiefs descended from Eliphaz in Edom; they were grandsons of Adah.

The sons of Esau's son Reuel: Chiefs Nahath, Zerah, Shammah and Mizzah. These were the chiefs descended from Reuel in Edom; they were grandsons of Esau's wife Basemath.

The sons of Esau's wife Oholibamah: Chiefs Jeush, Jalam and Korah. These were the chiefs descended from Esau's wife Oholibamah daughter of Anah. These were the sons of Esau (that is, Edom), and these were their chiefs.

These male descendants of Esau are called chiefs, emphasizing that they eventually led a significant tribe.

Genesis 36:20-30, The descendants of the sons of Seir

These were the sons of Seir the Horite, who were living in the region: Lotan, Shobal, Zibeon, Anah, Dishon, Ezer and Dishan. These sons of Seir in Edom were Horite chiefs.

The sons of Lotan: Hori and Homam. Timna was Lotan's sister. The sons of Shobal: Alvan, Manahath, Ebal, Shepho and Onam. The sons of Zibeon: Aiah and Anah. This is the Anah who discovered the hot springs in the desert while he was grazing the donkeys of his father Zibeon.

The children of Anah: Dishon and Oholibamah daughter of Anah.

The sons of Dishon: Hemdan, Eshban, Ithran and Keran.

The sons of Ezer: Bilhan, Zaavan and Akan.

The sons of Dishan: Uz and Aran.

These were the Horite chiefs: Lotan, Shobal, Zibeon, Anah, Dishon, Ezer and Dishan. 

These were the Horite chiefs, according to their divisions, in the land of Seir.

We are suddenly introduced to an individual named "Seir the Horite" and his descendants.

These names were presumably known to the early Israelites (but a bit boring to me!)  This passage takes the genealogy back a bit to show connections to Seir and the Horites. 

Many of these ancient leaders presumably have lands named after them. The ancient hero, Job, was from the land of Uz (Job 1:1.)

In this passage there are small discrepancies in various ancient manuscripts. In verse 16, the word "Korah" is a disputed text. According to the NIV footnotes, it occurs in the Masoretic Text but the Samaritan Pentateuch does not have "Korah". In verse 22 the Hebrew "Hemam", is a variant of "Homam" which appears in the genealogy of Seir in 1 Chronicles 1:39. In verse 24,  the NIV follows the Vulgate for the word "hot springs". The Syriac text translates as "discovered water" but the meaning of the Hebrew for this phrase is uncertain.

Genesis 36:31-39, Kings in Edom before the Israelites

These were the kings who reigned in Edom before any Israelite king reigned:

Bela son of Beor became king of Edom. His city was named Dinhabah.

When Bela died, Jobab son of Zerah from Bozrah succeeded him as king. 

When Jobab died, Husham from the land of the Temanites succeeded him as king. 

When Husham died, Hadad son of Bedad, who defeated Midian in the country of Moab, succeeded him as king. His city was named Avith. 

When Hadad died, Samlah from Masrekah succeeded him as king. When Samlah died, Shaul from Rehoboth on the river succeeded him as king. 

When Shaul died, Baal-Hanan son of Acbor succeeded him as king. 

When Baal-Hanan son of Acbor died, Hadad succeeded him as king. His city was named Pau, and his wife's name was Mehetabel daughter of Matred, the daughter of Me-Zahab.

Verse 31 is interesting -- the author (or a later editor) is aware that there will eventually be kings over the nation of Israel and clarifies that these Edomite kings ruled before then. 

According to the NIV footnotes, the name "Hadad" in verse 39 is another place where ancient manuscripts differ. Some manuscripts have "Hadar" instead. Like almost all manuscript differences, this slight change, a confusion between an 'r' and a 'd' in an ancient name, is irrelevant to our story. In this case we have a standard copyist issue we will see in other places: copyists often confused the Hebrew dalet (ד) with the Hebrew resh (ר.)

Genesis 36: 40-43, The chiefs of Edom
These were the chiefs descended from Esau, by name, according to their clans and regions: Timna, Alvah, Jetheth, Oholibamah, Elah, Pinon, Kenaz, Teman, Mibzar, Magdiel and Iram. 

These were the chiefs of Edom, according to their settlements in the land they occupied. This was Esau the father of the Edomites.

Esau, even though he didn't get the birthright from Isaac, is still the ancestor of numerous tribes in the region of Edom (in modern southern Jordan.)

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is alluwph

אַלּוּף

a (masculine) adjective meaning chief or chief friend. It appears more than two dozen times in this chapter, describing the descendants of Esau.

Some Random Thoughts

This chapter has one priority -- to trace the lineage of future Edomite rulers and leaders. This would be of significance to the judges and kings who would later face them. Verse 31 suggests that this lineage may have been compiled during that later time.

First published Feb 11, 2023; updated Feb 11, 2026

Genesis 35, Bethel

Jacob's sons have murdered the men of Shechem for the rape of their sister. It may be time for Jacob and his clan to move on.

Genesis 35:1-4, An altar at Bethel and removal of other gods

Then God said to Jacob, "Go up to Bethel and settle there, and build an altar there to God, who appeared to you when you were fleeing from your brother Esau." 

So Jacob said to his household and to all who were with him, "Get rid of the foreign gods you have with you, and purify yourselves and change your clothes.  Then come, let us go up to Bethel, where I will build an altar to God, who answered me in the day of my distress and who has been with me wherever I have gone."

So they gave Jacob all the foreign gods they had and the rings in their ears, and Jacob buried them under the oak at Shechem.

Jacob returns to Bethel, where, in a dream, God had met him at the top of a ramp to heaven (Genesis 28:10-22.) As they journey there, Jacob insists that his family remove the "foreign gods" (idols), including the rings in their ears (presumably a talisman regarding those gods.) It is likely that some idols were picked up in the looting of Shechem but we note that even Rachel had stolen Laban's figurines. It was apparently common to have figurines of various gods in the ancient Near Eastern pagan culture. Archaeologists have even found earrings in the shapes of various gods (says Alter.)

Genesis 35:5-7, Terror

Then they set out, and the terror of God fell upon the towns all around them so that no one pursued them. Jacob and all the people with him came to Luz (that is, Bethel) in the land of Canaan. There he built an altar, and he called the place El Bethel, because it was there that God revealed himself to him when he was fleeing from his brother.

Fear and respect follow the tribe of Jacob. They are a scary clan and have a unique God.

"El Bethel" means "God of Bethel" and "Bethel" means "house of God" so "El Bethel" is a bit redundant.

Genesis 35:8, Deborah dies
Now Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, died and was buried under the oak below Bethel. So it was named Allon Bacuth.

A brief interlude records the death of Rebekah's nurse. We have no other information about Deborah.

According to the NIV footnotes, "Allon Bacuth" means "oak of weeping".

Genesis 35:9-13, Name change confirmed

After Jacob returned from Paddan Aram, God appeared to him again and blessed him. God said to him, "Your name is Jacob, but you will no longer be called Jacob; your name will be Israel." So he named him Israel.

And God said to him, "I am God Almighty; be fruitful and increase in number. A nation and a community of nations will come from you, and kings will come from your body. The land I gave to Abraham and Isaac I also give to you, and I will give this land to your descendants after you." Then God went up from him at the place where he had talked with him.

In verse 10, "Jacob" means "he grasps the heel" (figuratively, he deceives) and "Israel" means "he struggles with God." Presumably this appearance of YHWH is again at Bethel, on the return trip from Harran.

The English title "God Almighty" is rare in the Old Testament; in Hebrew it is "El-Shaddai." 

Genesis 35:14-15, A pillar at Bethel
Jacob set up a stone pillar at the place where God had talked with him, and he poured out a drink offering on it; he also poured oil on it. Jacob called the place where God had talked with him Bethel. Then they moved on from Bethel. 

The worship at Bethel is summarized. In the first trip through Bethel, Jacob set up a stone pillar and poured oil on it (28:18.)

Genesis 35:16-20, Rachel dies in childbirth
While they were still some distance from Ephrath, Rachel began to give birth and had great difficulty. And as she was having great difficulty in childbirth, the midwife said to her, "Don't be afraid, for you have another son." As she breathed her last--for she was dying--she named her son Ben-Oni. But his father named him Benjamin. So Rachel died and was buried on the way to Ephrath (that is, Bethlehem). Over her tomb Jacob set up a pillar, and to this day that pillar marks Rachel's tomb.

In naming Joseph in Genesis 30:24, Rachel intended to "add" sons, to have more than one. The midwife tells her that she is indeed getting a second son. But Rachel will not live to raise him. Rachel dies in childbirth, finally getting her wish after many many years of infertility.

The term "Ben-Oni" means "son of my trouble" but could also mean "son of vigor." The name "Benjamin" means "son of my right hand". Alter suggests that "Benjamin", if the last part of the name is the Hebrew yom, would mean "son of my old age". Elderly Jacob has a twelfth son and refuses to allow Rachel's sad naming to stick with the child.

Rachel is buried near Bethlehem of Ephrath. A great deal will happen in that small town, including a number of significant future childbirths!

Genesis 35:21-22a, Reuben sleeps with Bilhah

Israel moved on again and pitched his tent beyond Migdal Eder. While Israel was living in that region, Reuben went in and slept with his father's concubine Bilhah, and Israel heard of it. 

Apparently concubines have little say about sex (or rape)?  In the ancient Near Eastern culture, sleeping with women in the harem of the father is probably a statement about dominance, about being the alpha male. (Absalom does this when he revolts against his father, David, 2 Samuel 16:21–22.) Reuben, the firstborn, may be laying claim to clan leadership after Jacob's death. Neither Jacob nor the narrator comment on this. Jacob hears of this but is silent. He will remember however, and will comment on this in Genesis 49:3-4.

Reuben is the firstborn son of Jacob and so, in the ANE culture, is the one to inherit the birthright and mantle of Jacob. But this sin presumably removes this right. The ancient readers of this text may now recognize that the first three sons of Jacob: Reuben, Simeon and Levi (see Genesis 34), have now all done atrocious acts, acts that might nullify their right to the birthright. If so, that mantle would then fall to the fourth son, Judah, out of whom the Davidic dynasty arises. The author of Chronicles has, however, a different viewpoint; see 1 Chronicles 5:1-2, where the sons of Joseph receive that honor.

Genesis 35:22b-27, The twelve sons of Israel

Jacob had twelve sons: 

The sons of Leah: Reuben the firstborn of Jacob, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar and Zebulun.

The sons of Rachel: Joseph and Benjamin.

The sons of Rachel's maidservant Bilhah: Dan and Naphtali.

The sons of Leah's maidservant Zilpah: Gad and Asher. 

These were the sons of Jacob, who were born to him in Paddan Aram. Jacob came home to his father Isaac in Mamre, near Kiriath Arba (that is, Hebron), where Abraham and Isaac had stayed.

Here we have a summary of the sons of Israel, organized according to their mothers.

Genesis 35:28-29, Isaac dies
Isaac lived a hundred and eighty years. Then he breathed his last and died and was gathered to his people, old and full of years. And his sons Esau and Jacob buried him.

Isaac dies, leaving two sons, each with large tribes. This entire chapter is a collection of miscellaneous events in the life of Jacob/Israel.  This last event, the burial of Isaac, probably happened some time earlier. 

We wrap up much of the life of Jacob in this chapter as the rest of Genesis will focus on his twelve sons and Jacob will be relegated to a minor role. 

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is elah,

אִלָה

a feminine noun meaning terebinth or oak. In verse 4, above, Jacob buries the idols under an oak at Shechem and then later, in verse 8, buries the body of Rebekah's nurse under "the oak below Bethel."

Some Random Thoughts

This birthright stuff is so strange. Although the concept of birthright is not mentioned in this chapter, some of the actions in this chapter will clearly have consequences to birthrights later.

The idols were buried under a tree and later the body of Rebekah's nurse was buried under another tree. But Rebekah's tomb was marked by a stone pillar, a more permanent marker that was still identifiable in the time of the author of Genesis.

First published Feb 10, 2023; updated Feb 10, 2026

Genesis 34, Rape

Jacob's family has settled outside the town of Shechem, named apparently, for the son of Hamor the Hivite. (Shechem was probably about 30 miles north of modern Jerusalem; see this Wikipedia page.)

Genesis 34:1-4, Rape of Dinah

Now Dinah, the daughter Leah had borne to Jacob, went out to visit the women of the land. When Shechem son of Hamor the Hivite, the ruler of that area, saw her, he took her and violated her. His heart was drawn to Dinah daughter of Jacob, and he loved the girl and spoke tenderly to her. And Shechem said to his father Hamor, "Get me this girl as my wife."

Dinah is raped by the son of the local ruler. Shechem is obsessed with Dinah and wants her as his wife, and rashly hurries and takes her by force. (The Hebrew leaves no question that this is rape.)

Genesis 34:5-7, Jacob and his sons hear of the rape

When Jacob heard that his daughter Dinah had been defiled, his sons were in the fields with his livestock; so he kept quiet about it until they came home. Then Shechem's father Hamor went out to talk with Jacob.

Now Jacob's sons had come in from the fields as soon as they heard what had happened. They were filled with grief and fury, because Shechem had done a disgraceful thing in Israel by lying with Jacob's daughter--a thing that should not be done.

Jacob hears of the rape. (From Dinah?) He is quiet about it until his sons come home.  They are furious and make plans to retaliate. But the rapist is the king's son.... It is likely that Jacob's silence angers his sons. They make plans for vengeance and do not tell their father.

Much of the time the author of Genesis does not comment on the historical events. The Genesis text usually gives no instructions on morality; it merely reports on the history. But here is an exception. Our narrator stresses that what Shechem has done was disgraceful ("in Israel"), as if to partially justify the horror of what follows. The phrase "in Israel" appears to look forward to a time when Israel is a nation, not just a small family band.

Note: It is possible that Jacob has other daughters.

Genesis 34:8-12, Hamor and Shechem ask for Dinah

But Hamor said to them, "My son Shechem has his heart set on your daughter. Please give her to him as his wife. Intermarry with us; give us your daughters and take our daughters for yourselves. You can settle among us; the land is open to you. Live in it, trade in it, and acquire property in it."

Then Shechem said to Dinah's father and brothers, "Let me find favor in your eyes, and I will give you whatever you ask. Make the price for the bride and the gift I am to bring as great as you like, and I'll pay whatever you ask me. Only give me the girl as my wife."

Hamor, the king, proposes marriage and an alliance. He is interested not in just a wife for his son but in a beneficial economic alliance with this wealthy family.  

In the ANE culture, the marriage should have been negotiated by the fathers, with a bride price being paid by the father of the groom. But the rape means that the woman has lost value and so the bride price should skyrocket. Shechem and his father are willing to pay "any price" for Dinah.

Genesis 34:13-17, Jacob's sons plan revenge
Because their sister Dinah had been defiled, Jacob's sons replied deceitfully as they spoke to Shechem and his father Hamor. They said to them, "We can't do such a thing; we can't give our sister to a man who is not circumcised. That would be a disgrace to us.

We will give our consent to you on one condition only: that you become like us by circumcising all your males. Then we will give you our daughters and take your daughters for ourselves. We'll settle among you and become one people with you. But if you will not agree to be circumcised, we'll take our sister and go."

According to the NIV footnotes, several places where the word "sister" appears, the Hebrew word is really the word for "daughter".  Clearly "sister" is implied.

Genesis 34:18-24, The men of the community are circumcised.
Their proposal seemed good to Hamor and his son Shechem. The young man, who was the most honored of all his father's household, lost no time in doing what they said, because he was delighted with Jacob's daughter.

So Hamor and his son Shechem went to the gate of their city to speak to their fellow townsmen. "These men are friendly toward us," they said. "Let them live in our land and trade in it; the land has plenty of room for them. We can marry their daughters and they can marry ours. But the men will consent to live with us as one people only on the condition that our males be circumcised, as they themselves are. Won't their livestock, their property and all their other animals become ours? So let us give our consent to them, and they will settle among us." All the men who went out of the city gate agreed with Hamor and his son Shechem, and every male in the city was circumcised.

This is a painful process for an adult male! The brothers are relying on that fact.

Hamor and Shechem appear to have considerable power and influence and are looking to ally their power with that of Jacob and his clan.

How big is the "city"? It is big enough to have a city gate. But one gets the impression that Hamor and his clan will be greatly aided by Jacob, his twelve sons and servants.  Many decades later, with the addition of grandchildren, Jacob's tribe will have grown to seventy (Genesis 46:27) so one might suspect that adding in servants, Jacob's clan at this time numbers less than thirty.

Genesis 34:25-29, Massacre and robbery

Three days later, while all of them were still in pain, two of Jacob's sons, Simeon and Levi, Dinah's brothers, took their swords and attacked the unsuspecting city, killing every male. They put Hamor and his son Shechem to the sword and took Dinah from Shechem's house and left.

The sons of Jacob came upon the dead bodies and looted the city where their sister had been defiled. They seized their flocks and herds and donkeys and everything else of theirs in the city and out in the fields. They carried off all their wealth and all their women and children, taking as plunder everything in the houses.

The rape of Dinah is followed by an act of extreme violence, with dozens murdered. Surely innocents die. 

I find it difficult to believe that just two sons, Simeon and Levi, are capable of massacring a city of hundreds. Other sons are involved in carrying off the wealth and so there may have been both sons and servants involved at the end of the massacre. It is also possible that there is typical ANE hyperbole here -- many men, especially those loyal to Hamor, are put to death and the death toll could be in the dozens, but it is unlikely to be the entire city. (We will see example of this hyperbole in some later accounts.)

Genesis 34:30-31, Jacob complains

Then Jacob said to Simeon and Levi, "You have brought trouble on me by making me a stench to the Canaanites and Perizzites, the people living in this land. We are few in number, and if they join forces against me and attack me, I and my household will be destroyed."

But they replied, "Should he have treated our sister like a prostitute?"

Jacob is upset by the massacre but the sons have a quick response, "They abused our sister."

The massacre will force a move. Jacob mentions both Canaanites and Perizzites; the Perizzites will be a tribe that Israel must deal with during the time of the judges.

Some Hebrew vocabulary

Our Hebrew word for the day is anah 

עָנָה

meaning to abase, to force, to afflict. In verse 2 above, describing the sex between Shechem and Dinah, the word is the root of vayaneha (וַיְעַנֶּֽהָ), meaning "with her, by force." In other words, the sex was forceful, possibly violent; it was rape. The Hebrew word has the same meaning in Judges 20:5 and 2 Samuel 13:12-14. That word can be used in situations that are not sexual; in Genesis 16:6 the NIV says that Sarah "mistreated" Hagar. In Exodus 1:11 the word is translated "oppress".  In both cases one might wonder if the word implies violence.

Some Random Thoughts

There are at least two places in Genesis where either an editor or a late author inserts a historical comment. Above, in verse 7, the author points out that "this disgraceful thing" should not be done in Israel. In Genesis 36:31, the author identifies the Edomites as living "before there was a king in Israel." In both cases the author or a later editor sees a history of Israel as a nation, looking back from a time centuries later.

First published Feb 9, 2023; updated Feb 9, 2026